Chapter One
Part A Text
A Brief Introduction to International Trade
Trading is one of the most basic activities of mankind. It has existed in every society, every part of the world, and in fact every day since the caveman came into being. International trade is a business which involves the crossing of national borders. It includes not only international trade and foreign manufacturing, but also encompasses the growing services industry in areas such as transportation, tourism, banking, advertising, construction, retailing, wholesaling and mass communications. It includes all business transactions that involve two or more countries. Such business relationship may be private or governmental. In the case of private firms the transactions are for profit. Government-sponsored activities in international business may or may not have a profit orientation.
In order to pursue any of these objectives, a company must establish international operational forms, some of which may be quite different from those used domestically. The choice of forms is influenced not only by the objective being pursued, but also by the environments in which the forms must operate. These environmental conditions also affect the means of carrying out business functions such as marketing. At the same time, the company operating internationally will affect to a lesser degree, the environment in which it is operating.
贸易是人类最为基本的活动之一，每个社会都有贸易活动，并存在于世界各地，事实上，从洞穴人开始就已经有了贸易交往活动。国际贸易就是人们跨越国界所进行的商务活动。广义地说，它不仅包括国际贸易及国外生产，同时还包括新兴的服务行业，诸如交通运输业、旅游业、银行业、广告业、建筑业、零售业、批发业以及大众传播业等。它包括的商务活动涉及两个或两个以上国家。这种商务活动，可能是私人间的关系；也可能是国家间的关系。私人企业为盈利从事国际商务活动，而带有国家色彩的国际贸易也可能不仅仅以盈利为目的。
不论是否盈利，企业必须建立起自己的国际贸易形式。其中有些形式与国内贸易形式完全不同。选择哪种形式不仅取决于企业所追求的目标，同时也受企业面临的环境制约。这些环境因素也影响着贸易活动的功能，如销售功能。同时，公司的活动也影响着国际贸易环境，只是这种影响不及环境对贸易影响那样深刻。
Section One  Reasons for International Trade（进行国际贸易的动机）
1．Resource Acquisition（寻求资源）
International trade, also called foreign trade, or overseas trade, in essence, is the fair and deliberate exchange of commodity and service across national boundaries. It includes import and export trade operations. It arises for many reasons.
Manufacturers and distributors seek out products and services as well as components and finished goods produced in foreign countries. The different distributions of the world’s resources determine the patterns of world trade. Some countries or regions are abundant in natural resources; elsewhere, reserves are scarce or nonexistent. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any fits own. So it has to import coffee from other countries that are rich in coffee, like Brazil, Colombia and so on. Britain possesses large reserves of coal but lacks many minerals such as copper and aluminum. The world’s raw materials are unevenly distributed, and both modern manufacturing and agriculture require many different resources. Thus, to obtain these through trading is an absolute necessity.
Climate and terrain affect the cultivation of some agricultural products, which a nation can produce and trade internationally. Some South American countries, for instance, enjoy a favorable climate for growing coffee. However, the United States almost does not grow coffee, and has to import it. On the other hand, the climate and terrain of some states of America are ideal for raising wheat. The wheat grown in the United States is so large that it is often exported to other countries.
国际贸易，又称对外贸易、世界贸易或海外贸易。从本质上说，即在平等的基础上，有意识地进行跨国界的商品和服务交换行为。它包括进口业务和出口业务两部分内容。国家贸易的兴起有多种原因。
制造商和经销商追求生产产品和服务，同时也在国外市场寻求配件和制成品，有时候这样做可减少成本。资源在世界各地的不同分布状况决定着世界贸易的格局。例如，美国是一个咖啡消费国，但由于气候的关系，它不能大量生产咖啡，因此，不得不从其他生产咖啡的国家，如巴西、哥伦比亚等地进口咖啡。英国拥有大量的煤炭资源，却严重缺乏像铜、铝之类的矿产资源。世界各地的原材料分布不均，而现代制造业和农业却都需要各种不同的资源。因此，通过贸易来获取这些资源是十分必要的。
气候和土壤影响着农产品的种植，这些农产品可以被该国用来生产和进行国际贸易。比如，一方面一些南美国家的气候非常适宜咖啡的生长；而美国几乎不产咖啡，必须进口。另一方面，美国有些州的气候和土壤很适合小麦的生长，因此，美国的小麦产量非常高，经常出口到其他国家。
2．Benefits Acquisition（追求利润）
With the development of manufacturing and technology, there has been another reason, i.e., economic benefit, for nations to trade. It has been found that a country benefits more by producing goods it can make most cheaply and buying those goods that other countries can make at lower costs than by producing everything it needs within its own border. This is often explained by the theory of comparative advantage, also called the comparative cost theory, which was developed by David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, and other economists in the nineteenth century. The theory emphasizes that different countries or regions have different production possibilities. Trade between countries can be profitable for all, even if one of the countries can produce every commodity more cheaply. As long as there are minor, relative differences in the efficiency of producing a commodity, even the poor country can have a comparative advantage in producing it. 
Comparative advantage has directed countries to specialize in particular products and to mass-produce. For example, the United States is relatively more efficient than Europe in producing food (using one third the labor). Thus, while the United States has an absolute advantage in both forms of production, its efficiency in food production is greater. Consequently, a great deal of clothing is exported from Europe to the United States.
随着制造业和技术的发展，产生了另一个促进国家间进行贸易的原因，即经济效益。人们发现，如果一个国家只生产低成本的产品，而从其他国家购买它们用低成本生产的产品，那么这比该国自己生产所有的产品要划算。对于这一点，人们常用比较优势的理论来解释。比较优势理论也叫比较成本理论，是由大卫?李嘉图、斯图尔特?米尔和19世纪的其他一些经济学家发展而来的。比较优势理论的要点是：不同国家和地区具有不同的生产可能性。国家之间的贸易对双方都有利，即使其中一方可用较低的成本生产所有的商品。只要两国在生产一种商品的效率上存在着微弱的相对差异，即便是穷国也可能具有生产这一商品的比较优势。
比较优势引导各国专门和批量生产某些特定产品。例如，美国生产食品的效率远高于欧洲。美国生产食品所需劳动力仅占欧洲所需劳动力的1/3，制作服装所需劳动力只占欧洲所需的1/2。可见，在食品业和服装业方面，美国都有绝对优势，但是生产食品的效率比制作服装的效率更高，所以，美国有大量服装从欧洲进口。
3．Diversification（多种经营）
Companies usually prefer to avoid wild swings in their sales and profits; so they seek out foreign markets and procurement as a means to this end. Some film companies have to smooth their yearlong sales somewhat because the summer vacation period (the main season for children’s film attendance) varies between the northern and southern hemispheres. These companies have also been able to make large television contracts during different years for different countries. Many other firms take advantage of the fact that the timing of business cycles differs among countries. Thus while sales decrease in one country that is experiencing recession, they increase in another that is undergoing recovery. Finally, by depending on supplies of the same product or component from different countries, a company may be able to avoid the full impact of price swings or shortages in any country that might be brought about, for example, by a strike.
为尽量避免销售量和利润的剧烈波动，公司通常会寻找海外市场作为防止这种情况出现的措施。由于南北半球学校放暑假的时间不同（此时为放映儿童电影的主要时间），电影制片公司将对其年度销售计划作精心策划。这些制片公司在不同年份与不同的国家签订了拍摄电视的合同。其他许多公司则利用各国不同的经济周期，对其生产与销售进行调整。这样，当一国经济萧条而引起销售量减少时，在另一国则可因经济复苏而使销售量增加。最后，依靠来自不同国家的同一产品或配件，公司就可避免由于一国价格波动或资源短缺带来的损失，比如由于罢工而引起的上述情况。
 
4．Expand Sales（扩大销售）
Sales are limited by the number of people interested in a firm’s products and services and by customers’ capacity to make purchases. Since the number of people and the degree of their purchasing power are higher for the world as a whole than for a single country, firms may increase their sales potentials by defining markets in international terms. Ordinarily, higher sales mean higher profits.
产品的销售量受制于潜在购买者的数量以及消费者的购买力。既然消费者人数及其购买力在世界范围内比在一国内要大得多，企业就可以在全球范围内划分销售市场，以增加其销售量。通常，销售量越大则利润越高。
There still are some other reasons for international trade. Some nations are unable to produce enough products of a certain item. Thus they have to import some to satisfy a large domestic demand. Moreover, the preference for innovation or style also leads to international trade, which makes available a greater variety of products and offers a wider range of consumer choice of a certain product. Finally, some nations of the world trade with others mainly for political reasons. In those cases, more considerations are given to political objectives rather than economic motivation.
还有其他一些进行国际贸易的原因。有些国家无法大量生产出某种产品，所以，必须从其他国家进口这类商品，以满足国内的大量需求。此外，国际贸易的发生有时也出自于对创新和款式的追求。因为国际贸易能够提供花色品种更多的产品，并且能扩大消费者对某一产品的选择范围。最后，还有些国家进行贸易主要是出于政治目的。此时，政治目的的重要性超过了经济因素。
Section Two  Problems Concerning International Trade（有关国际贸易的问题）
1．Cultural Differences（文化差异问题）
When dealing in international trade(exporting and importing), a businessman has to face a variety of conditions which differ from those to which he has grown accustomed in the domestic trade. The fact that the transactions are across national borders highlights the differences between domestic and international trade. Generally, there are certain differences which justify the separate treatment of international trade and domestic trade. In particular, these differences include cultural differences, monetary conversion, and trade barriers. Foreign traders must be aware of these differences because they often bring about trade conflicts in international trade.
There are many cultures as there are peoples on earth. When companies do business overseas, they come in contact with people from different cultures. They often speak different languages and have their own particular customs and manner. The people of all cultures are ethnocentric. This means that they judge the world from their own ways of looking at things. Therefore, in international trade, business people should be on alert against different local customs and business norms.
从事国际贸易（进口和出口）时，一个商人所面临的各种情况与他所熟知的国内贸易不太一样。国内贸易和国际贸易的最大区别就是商品交易跨越了国界。一般地说，有几个差异要求我们必须对国内贸易和国际贸易分别对待。这些差异主要包括文化冲突、货币兑换和贸易壁垒。从事国际贸易的商人必须了解这些差异，因为它们经常引起贸易摩擦。
地球上的文化和种族一样数量众多。当公司在海外开拓业务时，它们必须同具有不同文化背景的人打交道。这些人说着不同的语言，有他们独特的风俗习惯和行为规范。具有各种文化背景的人都有种族中心倾向，也就是说他们用自己看待事物的方式来判断世界。因此，在国际贸易中，商人应密切注意不同地方的风俗和商业准则。
2．Monetary Conversion（货币兑换问题）
Monetary conversion is another major problem in doing international trade. If every country in the world use the same currency, the world trade would be made much easier. But this is not the case: a Canadian beer producer wants to be paid in Euro dollar. Currencies, like other commodities such as beer,have a certain value. The only difference is that each currency’s value is stated in terms of other currencies. Euro dollars have value in US dollars, which have a value in Britain pounds, or a value in Japanese yen. These exchange rates change every day and are constantly updated in banks and foreign exchange offices around the world.
Importing and exporting firms to whom the payment is made in foreign currency can be involved in significant foreign exchange risks because of the fluctuation in exchange rates. An importer, for example, does not receive a shipment immediately after ordering it, and is often given a short period of commercial credit. Suppose a Canadian importer must pay a certain amount of Canadian dollar in 60 days to a German exporter for the import of some equipment. This transaction leaves the Canadian firm open to substantial exchange rate risk because during those 60 days, the Canadian dollar may depreciate relatively to the Euro dollar, forcing the Canadian firm to spend a large amount of Canadian dollars to satisfy its import commitment.
另外一个主要的问题就是货币兑换问题。如果世界上的每个国家都使用同样的货币，世界贸易将会变得容易得多。但事实并不如此，一个加拿大啤酒商人要求用欧元来支付货款。货币，如同啤酒或其他商品一样，具有一定的价值。唯一的区别是每种货币的价值是用另外的货币的价值表现出来的。欧元的价值可以从美元、英国英镑、日元表现出来。这些货币的兑换率每天都在变化，全世界的银行和外汇交易所也在不断地更新它们。
用外币支付给进出口公司的货款，因兑换率的波动，要面临很大的外汇风险。例如，一个进口商订购以后，不能马上收到货物，通常他会得到一小段时间的商业信用。假设一个加拿大进口商60天后将付一定数目的欧元给一个德国出口商以进口一些设备。这个交易会使加拿大公司面临汇率风险，因为在这60天里，加拿大元对欧元可能会贬值，迫使这家加拿大公司支付大笔欧元来履行其进口承诺。
3．Trade Barriers（贸易壁垒）
The third problem is trade barriers. It is generally assumed, as the famous economist David Ricardo stated in the 19th century, that the free flow of international trade benefits all who participate. In actual practice, however, the world has never had a completely free trading system. This is because every individual country puts controls on trade for the reasons:
(1) To correct a balanced-of-payment deficit. 
Such a deficit occurs when the total payments leaving a country are greater than money in receipt entering from abroad. The country then tries to limit imports and increase exports.
(2) In view of national security. 
Nations sometimes restrict exports of critical raw materials, high technology, or equipment when such export might harm its own welfare.
(3) To protect their own industries against the competition of foreign goods. 
This is generally on the grounds that infant industries need to be shielded from foreign competition during their start-up periods. A country usually offers protection to its domestic industries by taxing imports of similar foreign goods. The tax may be levied as a percentage of the value of the imports, which is called an ad valorem tariff. When a tariff is added to the price of a foreign product coming into a country, it raises the price of the item to the consumer.
Although tariffs have been lowered substantially by international agreements, countries continue to use other devices to limit imports or to increase exports.
第三个问题是贸易壁垒问题。正如著名经济学家大卫?李嘉图在19世纪所说的：自由流动的国际贸易可以使贸易双方都获益。然而，在现实世界中，世界从来就没有真正意义上的自由贸易。这是因为每一个国家都会因为下列原因而设置贸易管制：
（1）为了改善国际收支逆差
当一个国家的全部支出款项超过从国外收进的款项时，就会出现逆差。这时，该国就要限制进口而增加出口。
（2）考虑到国家安全
一些国家有时会限制出口危险的原材料，高科技技术或设备，因为这种出口会影响其自身的安全。
（3）保护本国产业免受国外商品的竞争
这一般是因为新兴产业在起步阶段需要保护，避免来自于国外的竞争。一个国家经常对进口类似产品征税来保护国内产业。税费可以按照进口商品价值的一定的百分比来征收，这称为从价关税。当关税计入进口商品价格中时，消费者购买该商品的价格就会上涨。
虽然通过国际协定，关税已经大幅度下降，但各个国家继续使用其他的策略来限制进口或增加出口。
There still exist other problems, but the above three are the most common problems in international trade.
在国际贸易中可能还存在着其他的问题，但上述三种是最普遍的问题。
Section Three  Forms of International Trade（国际贸易的形式）
Since there are tremendous differences between international trade and domestic trade, some special difficulties a company has to be confronted with when it plans to go into foreign markets. Although the same marketing concepts and strategies are utilized, cultural, political and economic differences make the task of entering an overseas market more risky. Thus, most companies proceed cautiously once they have decided to engage in international trade. They usually do some researches to have specific knowledge about foreign country’s economic, political, cultural, and social background as well as tariffs, quotas and foreign currencies, etc. Such researches will help the company choose the best form for dealing in international trade. 
Companies must choose among different operational forms. In making their choices, the companies’ own objectives and resources as well as the environments in which the firms operate should be considered. The following discussion introduces the major operating forms, which also correspond closely to the categories in which countries keep records of aggregate international transactions. 
由于国际贸易和国内贸易存在着巨大的差异，当一家公司准备打入国外市场时，它必须面对一些特殊的困难。虽然它采用相同的营销理念和策略，但文化、政治和经济上的差异使其进入海外市场更加危险。所以，大多数公司一旦决定进入国际市场时，就不得不谨小慎微，小心行事。他们通常通过调查来具体了解外国的经济、政治、文化和社会背景以及关税、配额和外币等方面的情况。这些研究将有助于公司选择最好的从事国际贸易的方式。
公司在从事国际贸易时，必须选择适合自己的贸易形式。在选择形式时，公司必须考虑经营环境，也要考虑自身的目标及拥有的资源。在以下的探讨中，我们将介绍国际贸易的主要形式，这几种形式也符合各国总计的国际交易种类。
1．Merchandise Exports and Imports（商品进出口）
Merchandise exports are goods sent out of a country, whereas merchandise imports are goods brought in. Since these are tangible goods that visibly leave and enter countries, they are sometimes referred as visible exports and imports. The terms exports and imports are used frequently, yet, in reality the reference is only to the merchandise exports and imports.
商品出口指货物输往国外，而商品进口则指货物输入国内。因为这些有形物品的输出输入都是看得见摸得着的，因此商品进出口有时又可称作有形进出口。虽然人们经常使用出口与进口这两个词，实际上，进出口指的只是商品的进出口。
(1) Exporting（商品出口）
Merchandise exports are goods sent out of a country. Exporting is an extension of trading with customers living in another country. This extension of the trade’s domain is highly important, since it enables the vendee to make a choice between alternative goods in satisfying his needs. The need to acquire natural resources and capital equipment is vital to the well-being of all nations. Exporting is likely to be the simplest way to enter the international market. There are two types of exporting: direct exporting and indirect exporting. 
商品出口指货物输往国外，出口是将贸易向外延伸到另一个国家客户的一种贸易形式，由于这种贸易外延可以满足买主对货物选择的需求而显得非常重要。对自然资源和资本设备的需求对一个国家的发展极为重要。出口或许是进入国际市场最简单的方法。出口分为两种：直接出口和间接出口。
① Direct exporting（直接出口）
Direct exporting involves establishing an export department or even an overseas sales branch. It provides a continuous presence and easier control for the exporter in the buyer’s country but obviously means more expenses. 
直接出口涉及建立出口部门甚至是国外销售分支机构。它能使出口商与买方国家长期接触，并易于控制，但显然也意味着需要支出较多的费用。
② Indirect exporting（间接出口）
A company can also sell its products abroad indirectly through middlemen, commonly called export agents. Export agents seldom produce goods themselves. Their purpose is to bring together buyers and sellers and help them handle international transactions. They make their money as a commission of the sale of price. Many agents specialize in specific kinds of products. The principal advantage of using an export agent is that the company does not deal with foreign currencies or the red tape of international marketing. The major disadvantage is that because the export agent must make a profit, the price of the product must be increased or the domestic company must provide a larger discount than it would in domestic transaction. Indirect exporting involves less investment and is therefore less risky, which enables small firms with limited capital and product diversification can export very easily.
公司还可以将其产品通过通常称之为出口代理商的中间商，间接销往海外市场。出口代理商很少自己生产产品，他们的目的是把买卖双方联系到一起，并帮助他们处理国际贸易事务，他们通过收取佣金来赚钱。很多代理商只经营一些特定的产品。通过出口代理商的最大优点就是公司不必与外币打交道，避免国际营销的繁琐程序。其最大的弊端是由于出口代理商要盈利，产品的价格就要上涨，国内公司就要比在从事国内贸易时付出更大的折扣。间接出口投资少因而危险性较小，它使那些资金有限，产品品种不多的小公司能很容易地出口。
(2) Importing（商品进口）
Merchandise imports are goods brought in. One nation’s imports are another nation’s exports. Importing, opposite to exporting, is the process of purchasing goods and services from other nations. Like exporting, importing can be either indirect or direct. Indirect importing is the purchase of foreign goods through domestic middlemen, while direct importing is the direct purchase of goods from overseas market. Indirect importing is convenient but limited in selection of goods and less profit. Direct importing is economical but more complicated than buying from importing middlemen.
商品进口指货物输入国内。一个国家的进口就是另外一个国家的出口。与出口相反，进口是从其他国家购买产品和服务。和出口一样，进口可以是直接的也可以是间接的。间接进口是通过国内的中间商购买国外产品，而直接进口则是直接从国外市场购买货物。通过间接进口比较便利，但商品的选择面较窄且利润较低。直接进口很经济，但比从进口中间商那里购买要复杂。
2．Service Exports and Imports（服务进出口）
Service exports and imports refer to international earnings other than those from goods sent to another country. Receipt of these earnings is considered as a service export, whereas payment is considered as a service import. Services are also referred as invisible. International business comprises many different types of services.
服务进出口指除去商品进出口以外的那部分国际收支，获得收入可看作服务出口，支出则可当作服务进口：服务这种商品，也被看作是无形商品。国际贸易包括许多不同种类的服务。
(1) Tourism and Transportation（旅游业、交通运输业）
Earnings from transportation and from foreign travel can be an important source of revenue for international airlines, shipping companies, reservations agencies, and hotels. On a national level, such countries as Greece and Norway depend heavily on revenue collected from carrying foreign cargo on their ships. The Bahamas earns much more from foreign tourists than it earns from exporting merchandise.
交通运输业和旅游业是国际航空公司、航运公司、预约服务机构和旅馆收益的主要来源。就国家而言，像希腊和挪威这样的国家，收入的大部分要依赖航运业，巴哈马群岛的收入则更多的来自海外游客，而不是靠其商品出口。
(2) Performance of activities abroad（国外商务活动）
Fees are payments for the performance of certain activities abroad, such services as banking, insurance, rentals, engineering and management. Engineering services are often handled through turn-key operations, contracts for the construction of operating facilities that are transferred to the owner when the facilities are ready to begin operations. Fees for management services are often the result of management contracts, arrangements through which one firm provides management personnel to perform general or specialized management functions for another firm.
企业要为其在国外进行的某些活动支付服务费用，这些服务包括银行、保险、租赁、工程和管理等。工程服务常常是以交钥匙工程承包方式进行的。承建生产设施的合同规定工程完成时，将全部设施交付转让给物主。服务管理费用的支付以管理合同为依据，根据这一合同，其中某公司为对方公司提供管理人员进行一般管理或专门管理。
(3) Use of assets from abroad（国外资产的运用）
Royalties are the payment for using assets from abroad, such as for trademarks, patents, copyrights, or other expertise under contracts known as licensing agreements. Royalties are also paid for franchising, a way of doing business in which one party (the franchisor) sells an independent party (the franchisee) the use of a trademark that is an essential asset for the franchisees business. In addition, the franchisor assists on a continuing basis in the operation of the business, such as by providing components, managerial services, or technology.
Firms often move to foreign licensing or franchising after successfully building exports to a market. This move usually involves a greater international commitment than in the early stages of exporting. The greater involvement occurs because the firm commonly has to send technicians to the foreign country to assist the licensee or franchisee in establishing and adapting its production facilities for the new product.
特许使用费是使用国外资产所支付的费用，例如商标、专利、版权或其他类似许可证协定那样的合同项目下的专业技术。特许使用费也可以用于特许经营。在这种经营方式中，一方当事人（给予特许者）将其商标的使用权出售给另一方独立的当事人（特许持有人），该使用权即成为特许权持有人的基本资产，此外，特许者还要给予特许持有人业务上的资助，诸如：提供零配件，提供管理服务或技术等。
企业在成功地建立起出口市场之后，往往倾向于采用国外许可证交易或特许经营。这种转移往往比早期单纯出口要承担更多的国际义务。这是因为企业通常需要向国外派遣技术人员以帮助被许可人或特许持有人建立和选择新产品的生产设施。
3．Licensing（许可证贸易）
Licensing is a simple way for a manufacturer to become involved in market abroad. It can gain entry to a market at little risk. Under licensing, a producer(licensor) in one country enter into an agreement with a manufacturer(licensee) in another country offering the right to use the company’s name, products, patents, brands and trademarks, as well as its raw material and manufacturing processes. In return, the licensee agrees to pay the licensor a flat fee or a royalty. License agreements may be either exclusive or non-exclusive. An exclusive license forbids the licensor to sell the license to any other firm in some specific geographic areas. The main disadvantages of licensing are that the company may lose control of the manufacturer fits products and right to sell them itself. Moreover, a new competitor may be created after the agreement ends.
许可证贸易是制造商于海外销售的一种简单方法。它能以较小的风险进入市场。在许可证贸易中，一国的制造商（许可证供方）与另一国的制造商（许可证接收方）签订合同，授权它使用该公司的名称、产品、专利、品牌和商标以及原材料和生产工艺。作为交换，许可证接受方同意付给许可证供方一笔统一收费或特许权使用费。许可证可以是独占许可证的形式，也可以是非独占的形式。独占许可证禁止许可证供方将许可证卖给一些特定地区的其他公司。许可证贸易的主要弊端是公司可能会失去对其产品生产的控制和销售权。并且，在合同结束以后，还可能产生新的竞争者。
4．Trading Companies（贸易公司）
Trading companies are large international wholesalers, frequently larger and more powerful than the manufacturers they represent. They serve as a link between buyers and sellers in different countries to facilitate trade. They purchase goods at the best price they can obtain in one country and sell them to buyers in another. They handle all the details required to move goods from one country to another. They offer consulting, market research, advertising, insurance, product research and design, warehousing, and foreign exchange services to interested companies.
贸易公司是大型的国际批发商，其规模与实力通常比它们所代表的制造商要强得多。作为分处不同国家的买卖双方的桥梁，贸易公司可以使贸易的操作便利。它们在一国以最优惠的价格购买商品，然后卖给另一国的购买者。它们处理将货物从一国运送到另一国所需的一切细节。它们为感兴趣的公司提供咨询、市场调查、广告、保险、产品研究和设计、仓储以及外汇服务。
5．Joint Ventures（合资企业）
Joint venture is a form of business relation which involves pooling of assets, joint management and a sharing of profits and risks according to a commonly-agreed formula. Legally, the joint venture is a form of partnership, a pattern of business organization which can be adopted by every type of industrial co-operation; in other words, joint marketing, servicing, production, etc., separately or in combination, may be legally organized as a joint venture. It may be of either an equity or non-equity type. If the former, a separate body is established whereby local interests purchase a share in the equity capital. If the latter, no additional body is set up; association is based entirely on a contract. Both equity and non-equity joint ventures are subject to risk and profit sharing: their common dominator. Joint ventures are more stable than exporting, importing, or licensing. Moreover, they are less expensive than wholly owned operations. However, joint ventures also encounter some problems such as controlling problems which arise because joint ventures require co-ordination across national boundaries, and problems concerning percentage of ownership, amount of investment, how much of the product will be exported, and how to evenly distribute the reward, etc.
合资企业是根据合资各方同意的规章而建立的一种商业关系，它涉及资产的统筹，共同经营管理，分享利润和分担风险。从法律上讲，合资企业是一种合伙关系，一种可以被各种产业合作形式所采取的商业机构模式；换句话说，就是以独立和联合的形式，把共同销售、服务、生产等方面按法律程序组织成一个合资企业。合资企业可以是股权式合营企业，也可以是非股权式合营企业。如果是前者，将建立一个独立的合资实体，当地合资者购买合资资本的部分股权。如果是后者，就不再建立另外的合资实体，联合完全建立在合同的基础上。不论是股权式合营企业，还是非股权式合营企业都要共同承担风险，分享利润。合资企业比出口贸易、进口贸易或许可证贸易更加稳定，比独自经营的费用要低。然而，合资企业也面临一些问题，如控制问题，其原因是由于合资企业要求跨国合作，还有诸如所有权比例，投资数量以及出口量多少，如何公平分配利润等问题。
6．Investment（投资）
(1) Direct Investment（直接投资）
Direct investment takes place when control follows the investment. This can amount to a small percentage of the equity of the company being acquired, perhaps even as little as 10 commitment to foreign operations in the given country. Not only does it imply the ownership of an interest abroad, but also means the transfer of more personnel and technology abroad than when there is no controlling interest in the foreign facility. Because of the high level of commitment, direct investment usually (but not always) comes after a firm has experience in exporting or importing. Direct investment operations may be set up in order to gain access to certain resources or access to a market for the firm’s product. Kenner, for example, uses its Mexican direct investment to assemble the Chewbacca Bandolier Strap because this gives access to a resource, cheap labor, for the product’s manufacture. Kenner also has direct investments in Europe, which have been made as a means of gaining markets in the countries where the production occurs.
When two or more organizations share the ownership of a direct investment, the operation is known as a joint venture. In a special type of joint venture, a mixed venture, a government is in partnership with a private company.
只有对企业享有控制权时，才会产生直接投资。但这种投资只占企业所获得的资产净值的一小部分，最少仅占10%。在对外经营中控制股权的所有权是在该国进行国际经营所承担的一种最高义务。它不仅意味着对国外资产的所有权，还意味着当企业无国外设施的控制股权时，要将更多的人才和技术输往国外。由于直接投资承担的是最高义务，企业一般是在从事进出口积累有一定经验后才采用这种方式的。经营者进行直接投资，往往是为了便于获取某些资源的使用权或进入其产品的市场。例如，肯纳公司在墨西哥进行直接投资，装配Chewbacca子弹带，是由于靠近原料产地以及有廉价的劳动力，肯纳公司在欧洲市场进行的直接投资生产则是因为靠近产品的销售市场。
当两个或两个以上的组织联合进行直接投资时，可称作合资企业。若政府与私人联合投资时，则为合资企业的一种特殊形式——混合企业。
(2) Portfolio Investment（间接投资，又称证券投资）
Portfolio investment can be either debt or equity, but the factor that distinguishes portfolio from direct investment is that control does not follow this kind of investment. For US Firms as a whole, sales from output produced abroad are many times greater than sales from US production that is sent abroad as merchandise exports. Today most of the world’s largest firms have substantial foreign direct investment encompassing every type of products or components, selling of output, and handling of various services.
Foreign portfolio investment is also important for nearly all firms operating extensively internationally. They are used primarily for financial purposes. Treasurers of companies, for example, routinely move funds from one country to another to get a higher yield on short-term investments. They also borrow funds in different countries.
间接投资可以以负债或以资产的方式进行投资，但它与直接投资是有区别的，它不享有对企业的控制权。就美国企业的总体情况看，企业在国外所生产的产品销售量远远大于美国产品以商品出口形式输出的销售量。事实上，世界上绝大多数公司对国外的直接投资有各种形式，诸如，开采原材料、种植作物、生产成品或部件、销售产品以及从事各种服务。
国外间接投资对广泛开展国际贸易的企业来说同样也很重要。它们主要用于金融方面。例如，企业按常规将资金以短期投资的形式从一个国家转到另一个国家以获取较高收益。同样，它们也会从其他国家借入资金用于周转。
For most nations exports and imports are the most important international activities. Each country has to import the articles and commodities it does not produce itself, and it has to earn foreign exchanges to pay for them. It does this by exporting its own manufactured articles and surplus raw materials. Thus the import and export trades are two sides of the same coin, and both can have beneficial effects on the home market. Imports create competition for home-produced goods; exporting gives a manufacturer a larger market for his products, so helping to reduce the unit cost. In each case the effect is to keep prices in the home market down.
But there may be factors that compel governments to place restrictions on foreign trade. Imports may be controlled or subjected to a customs duty to protect a home industry, or because the available foreign exchange had to be channeled into buying more essential goods and exports. Also may be restricted, to conserve a particular raw material required by a developing home industry.
These factors mean that importing and exporting are subject to a lot of formalities, such as customs entry and exchange control approval, from which the home retail and wholesale trades are free. They also mean that the procedures of foreign trade are much more complicated than that of domestic trade, the latter involves specialized knowledge and highly trained personnel.
对大多数的国家来说，进出口贸易是最重要的国际经济活动。每个国家都必须进口本国所不能生产的货物和商品，还得创收外汇来支付货物，这要靠出口本国的制成品和剩余原料。因此，进出口贸易是同一件事物的两个方面，两者对国内市场都能产生有利影响。进口货物使国内产品有了竞争，而出口则为厂商的产品提供了更广阔的市场，有助于降低单位成本。无论是进口还是出口，其作用都是控制国内市场的价格。
但是，可能出于某些因素，政府不得不对对外贸易加以限制。为了保护国内的某一产业，或者由于需要外汇用于购买更为重要的物资，政府可能要控制进口或以关税制约进口。同样，为了保留发展中的国内产业所需要的某一种特殊的原料，出口也会受到限制。
这些因素意味着进出口贸易受许多手续的牵制，诸如报关和外汇审批；而国内的零售及批发业务则不受此限制。这说明对外贸易的程序比国内贸易的程序要复杂得多，后者需要专门的知识以及受过良好训练的人才。
7．Visible and Invisible Trade（有形贸易和无形贸易）
International trade transactions can relate to the importation and exportation of goods or services from one country to another. Visible trade involves the importing and exporting of tangible goods, whereas invisible trade involves the services exchange between countries. For instance, Brazilian coffee is often transported by ocean vessels because these steamships are the cheapest method of transportation. Nations such as Greece and Norway have large maritime fleets and provide transportation service. When an exporter arranges for this kind of transportation, he rents space in the cargo compartment of a ship for one voyage.
The prudent exporter buys insurance for his cargo’s voyage. While at sea, every shipment has to run the risk of a long list of dangers: fire, storm, collision, theft, leakage, explosion, etc. To prevent these risks, the marine cargo insurance is provided to protect the exporter or importer from the financial loss. Thus, insurance is another service in which some nations specialize. Britain, because of the development of Lloyd’s of London, is a leading exporter of this service, earning fees for insuring other nations’ foreign trade.
国际贸易包括货物贸易的进出口或服务贸易的进出口。有形贸易指国与国之间进行货物贸易的进出口，而无形贸易指各国服务贸易的交换。比如，巴西出口的咖啡经常用远洋货轮来运输，因为其费用最低。像希腊和挪威这样拥有大规模海运船队的国家就可以为其提供运输服务。当出口商要安排这种运输时，他就要租船订舱。
谨慎的出口商往往为他的货物买保险，因为在海上航行时货物会遭遇各种各样的危险：起火、风暴、碰撞、偷窃、渗漏、爆炸等。海洋货物保险可以预防这些风险，保护出口商或进口商免受财产损失。这样，保险就成为一些国家专门经营的服务业。由于伦敦劳埃德保险公司的发展壮大，英国也因此成为这项业务的主要出口商，它通过为他国对外贸易提供保险而获取利润。
Some nations possess little exportable commodities or manufactured goods, but they have a mild and sunny climate. During the winter, the Bahamas attract large numbers of tourists, who spend money for hotel accommodations, meals, taxis, and so on. Tourism, therefore, is another form of invisible trade.
The United States has been described as a nation of immigrants. Many Americans send money back to families and relatives in the old country. Millions of workers from the countries of southern Europe have gone to work in Germany, Switzerland, France, the Behelux nations and Scandinavia. The workers send money home to support their families. These are called immigrant remittances. This is an extremely important kind of invisible trade for some countries, both imports and exports. Invisible trade can be as important to some nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to others. In both cases, the nations earn money to buy necessities.
有些国家几乎没有可供出口的商品和制成品，但气候温和、阳光充足。巴哈马在冬季能吸引大量的游客，他们要为住旅馆、吃饭和乘出租车等而花费大笔的钱。所以，旅游业是另外一种无形贸易。
美国是一个移民国家。很多美国人把钱寄回他们原来国家的家人和亲戚。几百万来自南欧的工人到德国、瑞士、法国、比荷卢经济联盟以及斯堪的那维亚半岛去工作。他们寄钱回家，以养家糊口，这称为移民汇款。对于有些国家来说，作为进出口贸易，这是一种极为重要的无形贸易。无形贸易对于有些国家就如同出口原料或商品对于其他国家那样一样重要。这两种形式都可以为国家赚钱，以购买必需品。
Part B Terminology Practice
1. Exporting: Sending goods to another country for sale or trade.
2. Importing: Bringing goods from another country for sale or trade.
3. Minerals: Commodities obtained through mining.
4. Comparative advantage: Situation that exists when a country can produce a product or provide a certain service at much lower cost than any other country.
5. Absolute advantage: Situation that exists when only one country can produce a certain item, or can produce it much efficiently than any other country. Theory of comparative advantage: An economic theory stating that if one country can produce a product relatively more efficiently than another country, it is beneficial to both countries for the first country to export that product to the other. It is also called the comparative cost theory.
6. Visible imports and exports: The import and export of tangible goods(not services).
7. Invisible imports and exports: The import and export of services rather than actual goods, for example, banking, insurance, an professional service, etc.
8. Balance of trade: The difference between the value of merchandise exports and the value of merchandise imports for a nation during a given period of time.
9. Exchange rate: The amount of one country’s currency that must be paid in order to obtain one unit of another country’s currency.
10. Tariff: Duty or tax levied on a specific commodity when it crosses national boundaries.
11. Quota: The maximum quantity of a certain product that is allowed into a country during a given period of time. A quota is used to limit imports.
12. Export agent: An agent who tries to find new markets for products manufactured in its own country.
13. Patent: An exclusive right granted by a government to an inventor to make, use or sell a new device, process, material, or other innovation for a specified period of time.
14. Royalty: A payment made for the right to use the property of another person for gain. This may be an intellectual property, such as book (copyright) or an invention (patent).
15. Balance-of-payment deficit: The amount by which money flowing out of the country exceeds the money flowing into the country during a given period of time.
16. Infant industry: Underdeveloped industry that, in the face of competition from abroad, may not be able to survive the early years of struggle before reaching maturity.
17. Export subsidy: A payment by a government to an industry that leads to an expansion of exports by that industry.
18. Ad valorem tariff: A custom duty charged as a percentage of the value of goods rather than on a weight or quantity basis.
Part C Terms
1. foreign trade 对外贸易 
2. overseas trade 海外贸易
3. international trade 国际贸易 
4. to trade with 和……进行贸易 
5. to do business in a moderate way 做生意稳重 
6. to do business in a sincere way 做生意诚恳 
7. deal 交易，经营，处理，与……交往  to make a deal 做一笔交易
8. to deal in 经营，做生意 
9. to explore the possibilities of 探讨……的可能性 
10. trade circles 贸易界 
11. to handle 经营某商品 
12. to trade in 经营某商品 
13. business scope/frame 经营范围 
14. trading firm/house 贸易行，商行
15. trade by commodities 商品贸易 
16. visible trade 有形贸易 
17. invisible trade 无形贸易 
18. barter trade 易货贸易
19. bilateral trade 双边贸易 
20. triangle trade 三角贸易 
21. multilateral trade 多边贸易 
22. counter trade 对销贸易；抵偿贸易 
23. counter purchase 互购贸易 
24. buy-back 回购贸易 
25. compensation trade 补偿贸易 
26. processing trade 加工贸易 
27. assembling trade 装配贸易 
28. leasing trade 租赁贸易 
29. in exchange for 用……交换……
30. trade agreement 贸易协议
Part D Exercise
I. Answer the following questions according to the information you have got.
1. What is international trade?
2. What are the major motivations for private firm to operate international business?
3. What is the most essential motive to pursue international trade?
4. What measures do most companies usually adopt to avoid wild swings in the sales and profits?
5. Pleas give the four major operation forms chosen by most companies.
6. What does balance of payments account mean?
7. What are the basic sources of international revenue and expenditure for most countries?
8. Could you find any differences between Direct Investment and Portfolio Investment? If you can, please tell the main reasons.
9. What is MNE? What are its synonyms?
10. Please give examples to explain “Services are earnings other than those from goods”.
11. What influences the international operational forms which a company will choose?
12. What limits a firm’s sales?
13. Why is merchandise exports and imports the firms type of foreign operations in which a firm gets involved?
14. What does “royalties” mean?
15. What is “franchising”?
II. Match each one on the left with its correct meaning on the right.
1. motivation		A. to make continual efforts to gain sth.
2. pursue       	B. the action of obtaining, esp. by efforts of careful attention
3. mark up      	C. which by its nature can not be known by senses, not clear and certain, not real
4. procurement	D. the goods (freight) carried by a ship, plane or vehicle
5. intangible		E. the amount by which a price is raised
6. cargo			F. profit, interest
7. royalty			G. the net value of assets or interest, invest
8. equity			H. not needing other things or people, taking decisions alone
9. yield         	I. a share of the profits
10. independent  	J. need or purpose
1. (  )  2. (  )  3. (  )  4. (  )  5. (  ) 
6. (  )  7. (  )  8. (  )  9. (  )  10. (  )
III. Translate the following terms and phrases into Chinese.
1. purchasing power       		 2. sales potentials investment
3. mark-up             		 4. domestic markets
5. finished goods         		 6. profit margin
7. market share           		 8. trade discrimination
9. timing                		 10. business cycles
11.recovery             		 12. recession
13. portfolio            		 14. tangible goods
15. visible exports and imports	 16. revenue and expenditure 
17. excess capacity       		 18. trade intermediary
19. turn-key operations     		 20. license agreements
IV. Case Study.
Batteries called “white elephant” exported from China were very popular in Southeast Asia, but in United States no one was interested in the goods. Why? 
V. Please try to find out some cases about cultural differences in doing international business.
VI. Translate the following into English.
1. 贸易常被说成是发展的“引擎”。这个比喻虽然过于简单，但它的确说明对外贸易在经济发展中的重要性。虽然出口的健康增长并不总是快速、持久的经济增长的充分条件，但两者之间积极而密切的联系显然是不可否认的。贸易发展对经济增长的作用表现在很多方面。其中，专业分工带来的利益；国际竞争对国内经济效率的促进作用；提高对发展所需的进口商品的支付能力，而更为普遍的是鼓励投资和企业家精神。
2. 国际贸易是一个国家生产的商品和劳务与另一个国家生产的商品和劳务的交换。除了有形贸易，即商品和货物的进出口以外，还有无形贸易，这是指国家之间劳务的交换。希腊和挪威等国拥有庞大的海运船队，提供运输服务，这是无形贸易的一种。无形贸易对一些国家来说，就像原料和商品出口对其他一些国家那样重要。在这两种情况下，这些国家都能赚到钱去购买其所需要的商品。
3. 国际间进行贸易的方式是多种多样的。包销是指卖方在特定地区和一定期限内给予国外客户独家销售指定商品的权力的贸易方式。在这种交往中，商品由包销商承购，自行销售，自负盈亏。这同只收取佣金的代理方式不同；也因为包销商在特定地区享有专营权，而与一般买卖合同有别。
4. 世界上没有任何一个国家能生产它所需的所有产品，所以各国参与国际分工，进行有效的生产和再生产。有时一个国家能够以易货方式从国外购买产品和服务，易货是指以一种货物交换另一种货物，而不是用钱交易。易货贸易本身并不足以满足一个国家的进口需要。但作为一种贸易方式，它对外汇短缺、外资流入远远无法满足外贸需求的发展中国家来说具有一定的吸引力。