学术顾问

常俊跃（大连外国语大学）

董洪川（四川外国语大学）

韩照红（美国哥伦比亚大学）

孙有中（北京外国语大学）

 Richard Young（美国威斯康星大学麦迪逊分校）

编委会主任

罗良功（华中师范大学）

编 委

蔡圣勤 曹 进 曹曦颖 陈义华 董方峰

方幸福 何卫华 胡美馨 李勇忠 梁晓冬

林正军 刘国兵 刘永杰 骆贤凤 潘 震

王 卓 王金铨 王松林 谢世坚 俞 婷

张 旭 张 陟 朱小琳



前 言

Foreword

“高等学校英语专业人文英语系列教材”的编写，既是我国当前一流学科建设、
一流专业建设、一流课程建设、一流教材建设的大形势下自然生发的教学改革行动，
也是对外国语言文学学科建设和人才培养内在要求的必然回应。中华人民共和国成
立以来，我国高等教育经过漫长的实践探索和理论争鸣，逐渐就外国语言文学的学
科定位形成共识，对其人文学科属性的表述近年来更加清晰。2018年正式出版的
《普通高等学校本科专业类教学质量国家标准》指出：“外语类专业是全国高等学
校人文社会科学学科的重要组成部分。学科基础包括外国语言学、外国文学、翻译
学、国别与区域研究、比较文学与跨文化研究，具有跨学科特点。”国务院学位委
员会的相关文件也明确了外国语言文学作为一级学科的地位，并对其五大学科主干
方向作了相同的表述。外国语言文学的人文性和学科定位，为外国语言文学作为一
门学科融入国家推行的一流学科建设，以及在此架构下推进的一流专业、一流课程、
一流教材建设提供了理论基础和实践空间，同时也凸显出外国语言文学教学改革的
必要性和迫切性。

高校外语专业的学科定位和教学实践中能否体现人文性和学科性是当前外语专
业教育改革的关键。孙有中教授说过，“就学科定位而言，英语类专业应加强学科
本位建设和人文通识教育。”不过，从我国高校英语专业人才培养的现状来看，学
科性和人文性问题没有得到重视。英语专业课程设置仍以语言能力培养为中心任务，
学科知识课程受到挤压，有限的学科知识课程流于零碎和浅表，阻滞了对学生学科
素养、思辨能力和跨文化能力的培养。针对英语专业教育的现状，我国诸多教育家
和理论家呼吁改革，也进行了富有成效的教学改革探索。在这一背景下，我们组织
国内部分高校的外国语言文学教学和研究专家编写了“高等学校英语专业人文英语
系列教材”。

本系列教材首先强调英语本科专业作为人文学科的基本属性，因而以“人文性”
为立意之本和目标旨归。所谓人文性，并非仅指人文知识的教学，而是涵盖人文知
识、人文品格、人文精神三个维度。也就是说，本系列教材既引领学生学习历史、
文学、艺术、哲学等人文知识，又塑造学生以人文情怀及视角审视和思考自然万物、
社会万象的人文品格，培养学生爱人类、爱真理、爱文化、爱自然的人文精神。其
次，本系列教材也强调“学科性”，也就是强调英语专业在外国语言文学学科框架
下的学科定位。这里所说的“学科性”，是指专业建设和人才培养中应该充分体现的、
关于本学科独特研究对象、研究领域、研究方法的知识；本系列教材直接指向外国
语言学、外国文学、翻译学、国别与区域研究、比较文学与跨文化研究等五大主干



学科方向对外语人才的知识、能力、素养要求。本系列教材高举改革大旗，对英语
专业传统的语言类教材进行人文化改造，对传统的人文性教材进行学科性升级，为
呼应新时代的人才需要而创制全新的人文教材，旨在为一流课程建设提供新的理念
和改革引擎，为外语专业人才培养赋予学科内涵和时代精神，为一流学科建设和专
业建设提供新的动力和实践模式。

本系列教材中的《综合英语》，旨在对综合英语这一经典课型的课程理念和内
容进行改革，提供人文化、学科化改革方案，以提高人才培养质量。综合英语课以
语言学习为主要目标的传统定位已经无法满足外语学科建设和人才培养的新需要。
《普通高等学校本科专业类教学质量国家标准》对外语专业本科人才的培养规格从
素质、知识、能力三个方面作了明确阐述，准确地反映了新时代对中国外语专业人
才培养质量的要求，包括中国情怀与国际视野、人文与科学素养、学科基本素养，
本学科知识、其他人文社会科学与自然科学基础知识，外语运用能力、跨文化能力、
思辨能力以及一定的研究能力、信息技术应用能力等。这就要求本学科课程体系有
效支撑、促进上述目标的达成。在这一意义上，教学时数近400学时、占本科英
语专业总学分8%的综合英语课如果仍然定位于语言能力培养，就是巨大的资源浪
费。因此，综合英语课必须依托外语学科的知识体系，有效支撑外语本科人才培养
目标，将学生引向人文知识的学习、人文品格的塑造、人文精神的养成，在实施国
家质量标准、满足新时代人才需求、提升人才培养质量方面发挥“综合”作用。

《综合英语》的编写立足于“人文性”与“学科性”，融入“内容—语言融合”
理念，努力将语言能力提升融入英语专业本科人才培养质量的素质、知识、能力目
标之中。鉴于此，本教材的编写遵循以下原则：

1.学科—社会双重导向性。本教材强调在知识结构和语言两个层面上兼具学
科导向性和社会导向性，即在知识结构的设计、语言材料的选择、学习任务的规划
上强调对学生学科意识、学科知识、学科语言表达的引领性；同时，为学生提供反
映社会生活、进入社会生活、探究社会生活的知识和语言材料，引领学生在知识和
语言上与时代和社会对接。

2.知识的系统性。本教材不仅为新学知识的附着提供骨架，形成知识吸收与
完善的基础，促进新学知识融会贯通能力的提升，而且有助于提高学生的探索发现
知识规律与联系的能力，形成逻辑能力、批判思维能力。

3.人才培养目标导向性。本教材通过以人文性和学科性为基础的综合英语课，
促进外语专业本科教学质量国家标准设定目标的达成；同时，强调在系统知识学习、
跨文化视野培养的基础上培养学生的综合能力，包括语言运用能力、跨文化能力、
思辨能力、自我发展能力。

前 言



4.跨文化性。跨文化能力是外语专业人才必备的一项核心能力，它是中国学
生在本土文化语境下研修“外语”专业的应有之意，更是人类文明互鉴、中国文化
走出去战略的必然要求。本教材强调的跨文化涉及中国与英语国家和非英语国家，
旨在开阔学生的国际视野。

本系列教材中的《综合英语》共6册，每册12个单元。在内容上，本教材根
据外语专业与不同知识领域及社会生活领域的关联度，精选了12个知识领域或社
会生活截面，即历史、艺术、哲学、科技、教育、社会、民族、交流与传播、自然
与环境、商业、信仰与文化、政治。每个知识模块有6个部分，构成一个较完整的
知识体系，并分别作为一个单元置于1–6册。

本教材的课文选材主要从内容、语言两个方面来确定，同时兼顾趣味性。

1.内容标准。选篇的来源具有权威性，所有选篇均符合国家现行法律法规和
主流价值观；每个单元中的选篇均能构建一个相对较完整的知识体系。

2.语言标准。选材不仅强调语言的经典性，同时强调语言表达的时代性和生
活气息，因而本教材试图在经典的语言和鲜活的时代语言、学术性语言和社会生活
表达中寻求平衡，体现学科性、时代性、社会性的多维特征。

趣味性并非本教材的主要选材标准。一方面，教材编写要适当迎合大学生的认
知能力和心智倾向；另一方面，大学阶段的教材不应该迎合低端的趣味要求，而应
该引领学生走向高端的心智和认知趣味。

本教材为立体化呈现的新形态教材，含纸质书和云端数据库两个部分。云端数
据库是对纸质书相关内容的补充和拓展，可通过扫码的方式立即获取。

本教材在编写中，每一个知识模块的6个部分按照语言难易度和知识的复杂度
从第1册到第6册以梯级式递进：第1、2册侧重于体验与认知；第3、4册侧重
于思辨与融通；第5、6册强调思辨、批判和思想创造。

本教材每个单元都是一个具有系统性的知识板块，由A、B两篇课文以及围绕
课文设计的练习活动组成。具体结构如下：

1.导言（Introduction）。每个单元均设有一个150词左右的导言，偏重
对于本单元知识概貌的学术性介绍，并引出本单元主题。

2.预习（Pre-reading Tasks）。主要针对本单元的知识点以及所选文章
的主要内容设计3–5个问题，通过查找资料进行回答。

3. A课文（Text A）。该课文有三个延展性内容：（1）云端数据库所存储
的与课文相关的拓展性信息以及课文朗读音频；（2）对课文中重点难点内容提供
简短的注释；（3）生词表（第5–6册除外）。



4. A课文练习（Exercises）。由认知性阅读（Cognitive Reading）、批
判性阅读（Critical Reading）、语言提高练习（Language Enhancement）三部
分构成。认知性阅读部分侧重于课文内容的理解和重新表述；批判性阅读部分侧重
于对学生逻辑思维、学术视野的训练，以思辨性、文化比较等问题为主；语言提高
练习则针对课文中出现的语言点和语言现象，以不同形式强化学生的理解与运用，包
括翻译与写作能力。这一部分的题目设计在语言内容上与本单元的知识领域相呼应。

5. B课文（Text B）。该课文结构同A课文，并与A课文一起形成一个相
对完整的知识结构，或形成中西文化对比。

6. B课文练习（Exercises）。一般包含2–3个问题，针对B课文及本单元
的基本知识、观点进行总结与讨论。

7.讨论与反思（Discussion and Exploration）。本部分是针对整个单
元设计的综合性练习，包括反思性练习（Reective Work），旨在对整个单元的
知识内容进行融会贯通；跨文化思考（Intercultural Thinking），立足于中国文
化语境对本单元知识与观点进行反思和探究；延伸阅读（Further Reading），提
供2–3篇文献，供有兴趣的学生进行拓展学习。

《综合英语》教材的编写团队由来自华中师范大学、郑州大学、中央民族大学、
宁波大学、山东师范大学、西北师范大学、江苏师范大学、河南师范大学的教师组
成。华中师范大学罗良功教授担任总主编，分册主编分别由方幸福、董方峰、王松林、
张陟、王卓、王金娥、俞婷、潘震、刘永杰、何卫华、朱小琳、刘国兵等教授担任，
各分册副主编和编写人员均由具有丰富一线教学经验、学养深厚的专业教师担任。
本教材的编写得到了北京外国语大学孙有中教授、大连外国语大学常俊跃教授、四
川外国语大学董洪川教授、美国哥伦比亚大学韩照红教授、美国威斯康星大学麦迪
逊分校Richard Young教授的指导和鼓励，在此一并致谢。由于水平和视野所限，
本教材还存在不如人意之处，敬请各位同仁包容、指正。

罗良功

2020年夏

前 言



目 录

Contents

History

1

Unit

Text A The Charm of Oriental Wisdom 3

Text B Continuity of Chinese Civilization 14

Art 

20

Unit

Text A Bringing Clay to Life 22

Text B Manet’s Last Years: A Radical Embrace of Beauty 34

42

Science and Technology

Unit

Text A Interpreting the Revolution 44

Text B From Here to Autonomy 55

Philosophy

63

Unit

Text A True Happiness 65

Text B The Human Situation 76

Race and Nation

83

Unit

Text A Understand Nations and States 85

Text B The Clan That Came Back to Its Roots 95

Society 

102

Unit

Text A How to Understand the Concept of Globalization 104

Text B China and Globalization 116



Communication

124

Unit

Text A Mass Communication 126

Text B Ethical Issues in Mass Media 138

145

Education

Unit

Text A Education as a Social Function 147

Text B The Education of Women 157

Nature and Environment 

164

Unit

Text A Biodiversity and Its Importance to Us 166

Text B Climate Change 177

Business

184

Unit

Text A What Is the Sharing Economy? 186

Text B Four Big Trends for the Sharing Economy in 2019 198

Belief and Culture

204

Unit

Text A The Prison-Door 206

Text B Dress in Different Religions 218

Politics

227

Unit

Text A Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat 229

Text B Darkest Hours 240

目 录



History

Unit



Introduction

All would agree that history is important, and few would disagree that oriental 
civilization makes an important history with its unique wisdom, though it might take 
some time for some people to discover that, so it is an interesting topic how an individual 
gets enlightened in his/her perception of world history, moves on to get a broader and 
more insightful understanding of history, and finally discovers a particular interest in 
oriental civilization. Text A, in a personal account, presents the author’s own experience 
of his constantly broadening view of world history, and his final encounter with oriental 
wisdom, and his reflection on how the Silk Roads serve as the world’s central nervous 
system, connecting peoples and places together. Text B focuses on Chinese civilization, 
illustrating the reasons for its continuity or longevity.

1

 What do you think is the charm of oriental wisdom?

2

 How much do you know about the Silk Roads? 

3

 What are the characteristics of Chinese civilization? How much do you know about 
the development of Chinese civilization?

4

 What are the differences between Chinese civilization and other Eurasian civilizations?

5

 What are the factors contributing to the cohesiveness of Chinese civilization?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks


2

综合英语



A

Text

Charm 

of

The

Oriental Wisdom

Peter Frankopan

1 As a child, one of my most prized possessions was a large map of the world. It was 
pinned on the wall by my bed, and I would stare at it every night before I went to sleep. 
Before long, I had memorized the names and locations of all the countries, noting their 
capital cities, as well as the oceans and seas, and the rivers that flowed into them; the 
names of major mountain ranges and deserts, written in urgent italics, thrilled with 
adventure and danger.

2 By the time I was a teenager, I had become uneasy about the relentlessly narrow 
geographic focus of my classes at school, which concentrated solely on western Europe 
and the United States and left most of the rest of the world untouched. We had been 
taught about the Romans in Britain; the Norman conquest of 1066; Henry Ⅷ1 and the 
Tudors; the American War of Independence; Victorian industrialization; the Battle of 
the Somme2; and the rise and fall of Nazi Germany. I would look up at my map and 
see huge regions of the world that had been passed over in silence.

3 For my fourteenth birthday my parents gave me a book by the anthropologist 
Eric Wolf3, which really lit the tinder. The accepted and lazy history of civilization, 


1 Henry VIII: born on June 28, 1491, Greenwich, near London, England; died on January 28, 1547, London, king of 
England (1509–1547) who presided over the beginnings of the English Renaissance and the English Reformation.

2 the Battle of the Somme: started on July 1, 1916, and lasted until November 1916. For many people, it was the 
battle that symbolized the horrors of warfare in World War Ⅰ. By the end of the battle, the British Army had suffered 
420,000 casualties including nearly 60,000 on the first day alone. The French lost 200,000 men and the Germans 
nearly 500,000.

3 Eric Wolf: known for having brought a historical perspective into the field of anthropology, integrating also 
prehistory, ethnohistory, and ethnology into his writings.



wrote Wolf, is one where “Ancient Greece begot Rome, Rome begot Christian Europe, 
Christian Europe begot the Renaissance, the Renaissance the Enlightenment, the 
Enlightenment political democracy and the Industrial Revolution. Industry crossed 
with democracy in turn yielded the United States, embodying the rights to life, liberty 
and the pursuit of happiness”. I immediately recognized that this was exactly the story 
that I had been told: the mantra of the political, cultural and moral triumph of the 
west. But this account was flawed; there were alternative ways of looking at history.

4 I was hooked. It was suddenly obvious that the regions we were not being taught 
about had become lost, suffocated by the insistent story of the rise of Europe. I begged 
my father to take me to see the Hereford Mappa Mundi, which located Jerusalem as 
its focus and mid-point, with England and other western countries placed off to one 
side, all but irrelevancies. When I read about Arab geographers whose works were 
accompanied by charts that seemed upside down and put the Caspian Sea at its centre, 
I was transfixed—as I was when I found out about an important medieval Turkish 
map in Istanbul that had at its heart a city called Balasaghun, which I had never even 
heard of, which did not appear on any maps, and whose very location was uncertain 
until recently, and yet was once considered the centre of the world.

5 I wanted to know more about Russia and Central Asia, about Persia and 
Mesopotamia. I wanted to understand the origins of Christianity when viewed from 
Asia; and how the Crusades looked to those living in the great cities of the Middle 
Ages—Constantinople, Jerusalem, Baghdad and Cairo, for example; I wanted to learn 
about the great empires of the east, about the Mongols and their conquests; and to 
understand how two world wars looked when viewed not from Flanders or the eastern 
front, but from Afghanistan and India.

6 It was extraordinarily fortunate therefore that I was able to learn Russian at 
school, where I was taught by Dick Haddon, a brilliant man who had served in 
Naval Intelligence and believed that the way to understand the Russian language and 
dusha, or soul, was through its sparkling literature and its peasant music. I was even 
more fortunate when he offered to give Arabic lessons to those who were interested, 
introducing half a dozen of us to Islamic culture and history, and immersing us in 
the beauty of classical Arabic. These languages helped unlock a world waiting to be 
discovered, or, as I soon realized, to be rediscovered by those of us in the west.

7 Today, much attention is devoted to assessing the likely impact of rapid economic 
growth in China, where demand for luxury goods is forecast to quadruple in the next 
decade, or to considering social change in India, where more people have access to a 
mobile phone than to a flushing toilet. But neither offers the best vantage point to view 



the world’s past and its present. In fact, for millennia, it was the region lying between 
east and west, linking Europe with the Pacific Ocean, that was the axis on which the 
globe spun.

8 The bridge between east and west is the very crossroads of civilization. Far from 
being on the fringe of global affairs, these countries lie at its very centre—as they have 
done since the beginning of history. It was here that Civilization was born, and where 
many believed Mankind had been created—in the Garden of Eden, “planted by the 
Lord God” with “every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food”, which was 
widely thought to be located in the rich fields between the Tigris and Euphrates.

9 It was in this bridge between east and west that great metropolises were 
established nearly 5,000 years ago, where the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro 
in the Indus valley were wonders of the ancient world, with populations numbering 
in the tens of thousands and streets connecting into a sophisticated sewage system 
that would not be rivaled in Europe for thousands of years. Other great centers 
of civilization were famed for their grandeur and architectural innovation. One 
Chinese geographer, meanwhile, writing more than two millennia ago, noted that 
the inhabitants of Bactria, centered on the Oxus river and now located in northern 
Afghanistan, were legendary negotiators and traders; its capital city was home to a 
market where a huge range of products were bought and sold, carried from far and 
wide.

10 This region is where the world’s great religions burst into life, where Judaism, 
Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism jostled with each other. It is the cauldron 
where language groups competed, where Indo-European, Semitic and Sino-Tibetan 
tongues wagged alongside those speaking Altaic, Turkic and Caucasian. This is 
where great empires rose and fell, where the after-effects of clashes between cultures 
and rivals were felt thousands of miles away. Standing here opened up new ways to 
view the past and showed a world that was profoundly interconnected, where what 
happened on one continent had an impact on another, where the after-shocks of what 
happened on the steppes of Central Asia could be felt in North Africa, where events 
in Baghdad resonated in Scandinavia, where discoveries in the Americas altered 
the prices of goods in China and led to a surge in demand in the horse markets of 
northern India.

11 These tremors were carried along a network that fans out in every direction, 
routes along which pilgrims and warriors, nomads and merchants have travelled, 
goods and produce have been bought and sold, and ideas exchanged, adapted and 
refined. In the late nineteenth century, this sprawling web of connections was given a 



name by an eminent German geologist, Ferdinand von Richthofen (uncle of the First 
World War flying ace the “Red Baron”) that has stuck ever since: the Silk Roads.

12 These pathways serve as the world’s central nervous system, connecting peoples 
and places together, but lying beneath the skin, invisible to the naked eye. Just as 
anatomy explains how the body functions, understanding these connections allows 
us to understand how the world works. And yet, despite the importance of this part of 
the world, it has been forgotten by mainstream history.

13 Places whose names are all but forgotten once dominated, such as Merv, described 
by one tenth-century geographer as a “delightful, fine, elegant, brilliant, extensive and 
pleasant city”, and “the mother of the world”; or Rayy4, not far from modern Teheran, 
which to another writer around the same time was so glorious as to be considered 
“the bridegroom of the earth” and the world’s “most beautiful creation”. Dotted 
across the spine of Asia, these cities were strung like pearls, linking the Pacific to the 
Mediterranean.

14 There was good reason why the cultures, cities and peoples who lived along 
the Silk Roads developed and advanced: as they traded and exchanged ideas, they 
learned and borrowed from each other, stimulating further advances in philosophy, 
the sciences, language and religion. Progress was essential, as one of the rulers of the 
kingdom of Zhao in north-eastern China at one extremity of Asia more than 2,000 
years ago knew all too well. “A talent for following the ways of yesterday”, declared 
King Wu-ling in 307 B.C., “is not sufficient to improve the world of today.” Leaders in 
the past understood how important it was to keep up with the times.

(1,450 words)

after-effect /.ɑ.ft.r.fekt/ n. a bad effect that continues for a long time after the 
thing that caused it

anatomy /..n.t.mi/ n. the structure of a body, or of a part of a body; the scientific 
study of the structure of human or animal bodies

beget /b..ɡet/ vt. to cause something to happen or make it happen; (old 
use) to become the father of a child


Words and Expressions

4 Rayy: also spelled Ray, Rey, or Rai, Old Persian Ragha, Latin Rhagae, formerly one of the great cities of Iran. The 
remains of the ancient city lie on the eastern outskirts of the modern city of Shahr-e Rey, which itself is located just 
a few miles southeast of Tehran.



embody /.m.b.di/ vt. to be a very good example of an idea or quality; (formal) 
to include something

extremity /.k.strem.ti/ n. the degree to which something goes beyond what is 
usually thought to be acceptable; the part that is furthest 
away from the center of something

famed /fe.md/ adj. well-known

glorious /.ɡl..ri.s/ adj. having or deserving great fame, praise, and honor; very 
beautiful or impressive

grandeur /.ɡr.nd../ n. impressive beauty, power, or size

hooked /h.kt/ adj. (informal) enjoying something very much or even 
addicted to it; curved outwards or shaped like a hook

insistent /.n.s.st.nt/ adj. making a continuous pattern of sounds that is difficult to 
ignore; demanding firmly and repeatedly that something 
should happen

irrelevancy /..rel.v.nsi/ n. a lack of importance in a particular situation; someone or 
something that is not important in a particular situation 

jostle /.d..s.l/ vi. & vt. to push or knock against someone in a crowd, especially 
so that you can get somewhere or do something 
before other people; to compete for something such as 
attention or a reward

mantra /.m.ntr./ n. a word or phrase representing a rule or principle which 
someone often uses, but which other people often find 
annoying or boring; a word or sound that is repeated as 
a prayer or to help people meditate

metropolis /m..tr.p.l.s/ n. a very large city that is the most important city in a 
country or area 

resonate /.rez.ne.t/ vi. (an event or a message) to seem to have a special 
meaning or be particularly important; to make a deep 
loud clear sound that continues for a long time

rival /.ra.v.l/ n. & vt. a person, group, or organization that you compete 
with in sport, business, a fight, etc.; to make good or 
important as someone or something else

sophisticated /s..f.st.ke.t.d/ adj. having a lot of experience of life, and good judgment 
about socially important things such as art, fashion, etc.; 
(machine, system, method, etc.) very well designed and 
very advanced, often working in a complicated way 

spin /sp.n/ vi. & vt. to turn around and around very quickly, or to make 
something do this; to make cotton, wool, etc. into thread 
by twisting it

steppe /step/ n. a large area of land without trees, especially in Russia, 
Asia, and eastern Europe 

stimulate /.st.mj.le.t/ vt. to encourage or help an activity to begin or develop 
further; to encourage someone by making them excited 
about and interested in something

sufficient /s..f...nt/ adj. as much as is needed for a particular purpose 



suffocate /.s.f.ke.t/ vt. & vi. to prevent a relationship, plan, business etc. from 
developing well or being successful; to die or make 
someone die by preventing them from breathing

surge /s..d./ n. & vi. a sudden increase in amount or number; to suddenly 
move very quickly in a particular direction

thrill /θr.l/ vt. & n. to make someone feel excited and happy; a sudden 
strong feeling of excitement and pleasure, or the thing 
that makes you feel this

tinder /.t.nd./ n. dry material that burns easily and can be used for 
lighting fires

transfixed /tr.ns.f.kst/ adj. unable to move because you are very surprised, 
shocked, frightened, interested, etc.

yield /ji.ld/ vt. & n. to produce a result, answer, or piece of information; the 
amount of profits, crops, etc. that something produces

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

 a. The text aims to introduce the Silk Roads, where the east and west culture, 
religion and trade are interconnected.

 b. The text argues the world center is not the west.

 c. The text criticizes a narrow view of the world history.

 d. The text presents a rediscovery of the orient and its role in the world civilization.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. The author thinks that the anthropologist Eric Wolf’s account of 
the history of civilization was wrong.

2. The author came to realize that the overemphasis on the history 
of Europe overshadowed some places so that their history was 
neglected and seldom taught about at school.

3. Para. 5 tells us the author wanted to look at the world and the world 


Exercises

T F



history from another perspective instead of the west-centered one.

4. Due to the rapid economic growth and great social changes, China 
and India have gained the advantageous role in viewing the world’s 
history.

5. The bridge between the east and west is the birthplace of many 
worldly important religions.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. Why did the author feel apprehensive about what he was taught at school 
when he was a teenager?

2. Why did the author feel fortunate to be taught by Dick Haddon?

3. Where does the author think is the very center of the world? Why?

4. Who named the routes the Silk Roads?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. For my fourteenth birthday my parents gave me a book by the anthropologist 
Eric Wolf, which really lit the tinder. (Para. 3)

2. Industry crossed with democracy in turn yielded the United States, embodying 
the rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. (Para. 3)

3. I was hooked. It was suddenly obvious that the regions we were not being 
taught about had become lost, suffocated by the insistent story of the rise of 
Europe. (Para. 4)

4. Its capital city was home to a market where a huge range of products were 
bought and sold, carried from far and wide. (Para. 9)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. How do you understand the sentence “A talent for following the ways of 
yesterday is not sufficient to improve the world of today.”?

2. What do you think are the great contributions of the Silk Roads to the 
development of the world?

3. Where do you think is the center of the world?

4. What do you know about “The Belt and Road Initiative” and what can you do 
for it?



Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. More than thirty years has passed yet people are still suffering from the 
________________ of the world’s worst nuclear accident in that country.

 a. after-effects b. results c. outcomes d. effects

2. For a good number of people, games ________________ a sense of accomplishment 
as you “move the ball forward” and achieve results.

 a. express b. include c. embody d. exemplify 

3. Nowadays many young girls are ________________ on weight loss, which almost 
becomes a global craze.

 a. hooked b. interested c. fond d. addicted

4. His promotion to the department chief was due to his ________________ endeavor.

 a. insistent b. unrelenting c. consistent d. continual

5. The area is famous for its wonderfully fragrant wine which has no ________________ 
in the country. 

 a. adversaries b. opponents c. rivals d. competitors

6. Due to his indiscriminate spending, his salary was not ________________ for his 
living expenses.

 a. plenty b. sufficient c. adequate d. abundant 

7. It is predicted that the new tax policy may ________________ the dwindling 
population of young workers.

 a. stifle b. suffocate c. hinder d. prevent

8. The Dow Jones Industrial Average’s 46% ________________ was one of just six of 
that magnitude in the last 100 years.

 a. proliferation b. explosion c. increase d. surge

9. New measures to ________________ the property market would be announced 
within a week.

 a. stimulate b. promote c. drive d. motivate

10. Children of today do not automatically become more ________________ because 
they have access to more information than children of the past.

 a. complex b. sophisticated c. complicated d. cunning



B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

be thrilled with be famed for pass over far from demand for
be jostled with have access to fan out keep up with immerse oneself in

1. My parents ________________ my choice of that college, even though I had never 
even paid the campus a visit during the application process. 

2. On that condition, and on that condition only, I am willing to ________________ 
the past. 

3. She insisted that, ________________ being easy, it would be a difficult period for all 
concerned.

4. She got some books out of the library and ________________ Jewish history and 
culture.

5. The government is unlikely to agree to the rebels’ ________________ independence. 

6. ________________ some of the best cinemas and theatres is one of the perks of 
living in Sydney.

7. It’s a city ________________ its ski slopes and casinos. 

8. Photographers ________________ journalists to get a better view of the royal 
couple. 

9. If a group of people ________________, they move in different directions from a 
single point.

10. Supply of the goods is failing to ________________ demand.

 II. Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. They wonder whether their life ________________ considerably by 2030.

 a. will have changed b. will be changing

 c. will have to change d. is going to change

2. ________________ the three girls, I have always believed that Mary is the ________________ 
beautiful.

 a. Of; more b. Among; much c. Of; most d. Among; most

3. This picture is believed ________________ painted by Tom.

 a. it was b. to be c. to being d. to have been

4. The statesman and writer you talked with last month ________________ at today’s 
conference.

 a. was present b. was presenting c. were present d. were presenting



5. I ________________ provided you with the money. Why didn’t you ask me?

 a. could have b. had c. must have d. ought to have

6. My cat would not have bitten the toy fish, ________________ it was made of 
rubber.

 a. if she has known b. she should have known

 c. if she knew d. had she known

7. ________________ are inert outside living cells, but within the appropriate cells 
they can replicate, causing viral diseases in the organism.

 a. Viruses b. That viruses c. Viruses which d. Despite viruses

8. ________________ your body does after the stimulus has acted is called the 
response.

 a. When b. How c. What d. That

9. ________________, astronomy is a field in which amateurs can make significant 
contributions.

 a. Not only most other sciences b. In most other sciences

 c. However most other sciences d. Unlike most other sciences

10. Take your handbag and hang it ________________ you can find enough space.

 a. which b. in which c. wherever d. whether

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. By the time I was a teenager, I had become uneasy about the relentlessly narrow 
geographic focus of my classes at school, which concentrated solely on western 
Europe and the United States and left most of the rest of the world untouched.

2. I immediately recognized that this was exactly the story that I had been told: 
the mantra of the political, cultural and moral triumph of the west. But this 
account was flawed; there were alternative ways of looking at history.

3. I was even more fortunate when he offered to give Arabic lessons to those who 
were interested, introducing half a dozen of us to Islamic culture and history, 
and immersing us in the beauty of classical Arabic.

4. The bridge between east and west is the very crossroads of civilization. Far from 
being on the fringe of global affairs, these countries lie at its very centre—as 
they have done since the beginning of history.

5. These pathways serve as the world’s central nervous system, connecting peoples 
and places together, but lying beneath the skin, invisible to the naked eye.



II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or phrases 
given in brackets.

1. 她决心学骑马、打网球和高尔夫球，以便在这些娱乐活动中都能陪伴他。
（accompany）

2. 他受不了所有那些条条框框的束缚。（suffocate）

3. 经历这次金融危机后，您怎么看待目前的市场变化？（look to）

4. 与基于地球的设备相比，由于在宇宙空间中的优势，该飞船望远镜可以获得更清晰
的图片。（vantage）

5. 轮船的速度没法与飞机相比。（rival）

6. 然而，我确实认为您可以找到一些能与您经历产生共鸣的例子，并让您进行深入的
思考。（resonate）

7. 距离能加强爱的纽带，能帮助我们重新发现自己，继而以某种新的方式认识对方。
（rediscover）

8. 直到去年为止，这个政党一直处在政治舞台的外围。（on the fringe of）

D

 Writing

As an ancient Chinese proverb goes, “Take history as a mirror, you can know the 
ups and downs.” As a nation with a history of over 5,000 years, Chinese civilization has 
made great contributions to the whole world and provided us with so many lessons to 
draw from.

In your opinion, what is the most valuable intellectual heritage of Chinese 
civilization that should be inherited? Give your reasons and specific measures to carry it 
forward in the future in an essay with no less than 300 words.



1 One reason for the longevity of the Chinese civilization is geographic, for China 
is isolated from the world’s other great civilizations to an unprecedented degree. China 
has nothing comparable to the Mediterranean, which linked Mesopotamia, Egypt, 
Greece, and Rome, or the Indian Ocean, which allowed India to interact with the 
Middle East, Africa, and south Asia. Instead, during most of its history, China was 
effectively cut off on all sides by mountains, deserts, and the vast Pacific Ocean. The 
significance of this isolation is that it allowed the Chinese to develop their civilization 
with fewer intrusions from the outside than the peoples of the Middle East or India 
had to face. Consequently, their civilization was both more continuous and also 
more distinctive. It has more fundamental differences from the other great Eurasian 
civilizations than any of them have from each other.

2 The unique size of China’s population has also contributed to the continuity of 
civilization. From the beginning China has been able to support a huge population 
because of a favorable combination of soil and climate. The monsoon rains come 
during the warm months of the year, so that two crops per year are possible in some 
areas south of the Yangtze River, in contrast to the average one-crop yields of the 
Middle East and Europe. Furthermore, rice produces a much larger yield per acre than 
the wheat or barley grown in most parts of Eurasia. Thus the census of 2 A.D. showed 
that Han China had a population of 59.5 million—more than that of the Roman 
Empire at its greatest extent. By the early sixteenth century, when the Portuguese first 
arrived, China’s population was over 100 million, more than that of all Europe. By the 
mid-nineteenth century, when China was being forced open by western gunboats, its 
population had spurted upward to over 400 million, partly because of the introduction 


B

Text

Continuity 

of

Chinese 

Civilization

L. S. Stavrianos



of such New World food crops as peanuts, maize, and sweet potatoes.

3 Such an unequalled population made it possible for the Chinese to retain their 
identity regardless of the course of events. They had been conquered and ruled by the 
Mongols and Manchus, as well as battered and undermined by the west. But in the 
end their superiority in numbers together with their superiority in civilization always 
enabled them to assimilate or expel the intruders and to adapt selected aspects of 
foreign cultures to their traditional civilization. Never has wholesale transformation 
been imposed from the outside, as it was in Europe with the Germanic invasions, or in 
the Middle East and in India with the Moslem ones.

4 Another important factor in China’s cohesiveness is the existence of a single 
written language that goes back several millennia to the earliest Shang Dynasty. This 
written language is of special significance because it is understood by Chinese from 
all regions, speaking dialects as different from each other as Italian is from Spanish 
or Swedish from German. The reason it is understandable to all is that it consists of 
characters representing ideas or objects. These characters are pronounced in different 
ways in different parts of China, but the meaning of any character is the same no 
matter how it is pronounced. A western parallel would be the Arabic number system: 
for example, the word for the number 8 is pronounced differently in Italian, in 
Swedish, or in English, but the meaning of the symbol 8 remains the same in all three 
tongues. This common written language has been an important force in providing 
unity and historic continuity to China. In fact, it has done so to all of east Asia, for 
the Chinese method of writing has been adopted in whole or in part by most of the 
surrounding peoples, including the Japanese, Koreans, and some of the Southeast 
Asians.

5 Related to the common written language is the extraordinary system of public 
examinations which formed the basis of the merit system by which for nearly 
two millennia China staffed its civil service. “When the right men are available, 
government flourishes. When the right men are not available, government declines.” 
This Confucian maxim expresses the fundamental Chinese doctrine that problems 
of state are better met by recruiting people of talent than by depending on laws and 
institutions, as was done in the west. When fully evolved, the Chinese system consisted 
of a series of examinations held, in ascending order, in district and prefectural cities, 
provincial capitals, and finally the imperial capital.

6 At first the examinations were fairly comprehensive, emphasizing the Confucian 
classics but including also subjects like law, mathematics, and political affairs. 
Gradually, however, they came to concentrate on literary style and Confucian 



orthodoxy. The net result was a system that theoretically opened offices to all males 
of talent but that in practice favored the classes with sufficient wealth to afford the 
years of study and preparation. This did not mean that a hereditary aristocracy ruled 
China; rather, it was a hierarchy of the learned, a literocracy, providing China with an 
efficient and stable administration that won the respect and admiration of Europeans. 
On the other hand, it was a system that stifled originality and bred conformity. As long 
as China remained relatively isolated in east Asia, it provided stability and continuity. 
But with the intrusion of the dynamic west the system prevented effective reaction and 
adjustment. It was finally abolished altogether in 1905.

7 Perhaps the most important factor contributing to the cohesiveness of Chinese 
civilization was the moral code and the literary and intellectual heritage known as 
Confucianism. This was made up of the teaching of Confucius (551 B.C.–479 B.C.), 
the name being a Latinized form of Kungfu-tzu, or “Master Kung”. Like most Chinese 
thinkers, Confucius was concerned primarily with the establishment of a happy and 
well-organized society in this world. His first principle was “every man in his place”: 
“Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject a subject; let the father be a father and the 
son be a son.” Confucius defined the proper social relationships between people of 
different stations of life. If each individual acted in accordance with his or her station, 
the family would be orderly, and when the family was orderly, the state would be 
peaceful and all would be harmonious under Heaven.

8 Confucius also provided China with a philosophy of government. His innovation 
was the concept that government is basically an ethical problem. He made no 
distinction between politics and ethics, since social harmony depended on virtuous 
rulers providing for the welfare and happiness of their subjects. Just as the individual 
should be subordinate to the family, so the family should be subordinate to the 
emperor. But the emperor in turn should set an example of benevolent fatherhood, 
and this was to be done by following the ethics of Confucianism rather than a system 
of law. Confucius thus was the founder of a great ethical tradition in a civilization 
that, more than any other, came to concentrate on ethical values. Confucianism’s 
moral justification for authority and social inequality appealed to rulers and to the 
wealthy. Yet at the same time, its high ethical principles gave the status quo a stronger 
foundation than mere hereditary right and served as a constant stimulus to improve 
government and social relationships.

9 All these factors are necessary to explain the continuity of Chinese civilization 
since its beginning about 1500 B.C. The history of the Middle East presents a sharp 
contrast: Alexander’s conquests spread the new Hellenistic culture; the Moslem 
conquests brought radical changes in race, language, and culture, as well as religion. 



India, likewise, was transformed fundamentally with the Aryan invasions about 1500 
B.C. and the Moslem invasions after 1000 A.D. The historical evolution of China 
was never jarred by such violent upheavals. There were many invasions, and on two 
occasions foreign dynasties ruled the entire country, but these intrusions disturbed 
rather than transformed. Instead of massive breaks and new beginnings, China 
throughout its history experienced merely the rise and fall of dynasties within the 
traditional framework.

(1,329 words)

abolish /..b.l../ vt. to officially end a law, system, etc., especially one that 
has existed for a long time 

acre /.e.k./ n. a unit for measuring area, equal to 4,840 square yards or 
4,047 square meters

aristocracy /..r..st.kr.si/ n. the people in the highest social class, who traditionally 
have a lot of land, money, and power 

Aryan /.e.ri.n/ n. someone from Northern Europe, especially someone with 
blond hair and blue eyes 

ascend /..send/ vi. & vt. to climb something or move to a higher position

assimilate /..s.m.le.t/ vt. to become an accepted part of a group, community, etc. 

batter /.b.t./ vt. to hit someone or something many times, in a way that 
hurts or damages them 

benevolent /b..nev.l.nt/ adj. kind and generous

census /.sens.s/ n. an official process of counting a country’s population and 
finding out about the people 

Eurasian /j..re...n/ adj. relating to both Europe and Asia 

expel /.k.spel/ vt. to force a foreigner to leave a country, especially because 
they have broken the law or for political reasons

Hellenistic /.hel..n.st.k/ adj. connected with the history, art, etc. of ancient Greece 
and the eastern Mediterranean

hereditary /h..red.t.ri/ adj. (position, rank, title, etc.) can be passed from an older to 
a younger person in the same family, usually when the 
older one dies

hierarchy /.ha.rɑ.ki/ n. a system of organization in which people or things are 
divided into levels of importance


Words and Expressions



jar /d.ɑ./ vt. to make someone feel annoyed or shocked

justification /.d..st.f..ke...n/ n. a good and acceptable reason for doing something 

longevity /l.n.d.ev.ti/ n. the amount of time that something lasts

Mongol /.m..ɡ.l/ n. someone from Mongolia

monsoon /m.n.su.n/ n. the season, from about April to October, when it rains a 
lot in India and other southern Asian countries 

orthodoxy /...θ.d.ksi/ n. an idea or set of ideas that is accepted by most people 
to be correct and right 

prefecture /.pri.fekt.../ n. a large area which has its own local government in some 
countries

recruit /r..kru.t/ vt. to find new people to work in a company, join an 
organization, do a job, etc.

retain /r..te.n/ vt. to keep something or continue to have something

spurt /sp..t/ vi. to suddenly start moving more quickly, especially for a 
short time

stifle /.sta.f.l/ vt. to stop something from happening or developing 

undermine /..nd..ma.n/ vt. to gradually make someone or something less strong or 
effective

upheaval /.p.hi.v.l/ n. a very big change that often causes problems 

virtuous /.v..t.u.s/ adj. (formal) behaving in a very honest and moral way 

wholesale /.h..lse.l/ adj. affecting almost everything or everyone, and often done 
without any concern for the results

Discuss the following questions.

1. According to the author, what are the factors that contribute to the continuity 
of Chinese civilization?

2. Why is the single written language so significant to Chinese civilization?

3. Why is Confucianism regarded as the most important factor that contributes to 
the cohesiveness of Chinese civilization?


Exercises



Discussion and Exploration

Discussion and Exploration

Reflective Work

1. We should understand the development of civilization historically and from 
different cultural perspectives. So how do you understand the continuity of 
Chinese civilization from a Chinese perspective?

2. Why are the cultures along the Silk Roads developed and advanced? Explain 
from the perspective of intercultural communication.

Intercultural Thinking

Why is it important to “build a community with a shared future for mankind” from 
both historical and cultural perspectives?

Further Reading

1

 
Title “Chinese Wisdom” to Benefit Economic Globalization

 Summary When economic globalization has reached a stage of stagnation, 
technology innovation is urgently needed to revive the world economy 
and China plays a very significant role in boosting social productivity. 
China, with an open and more innovative attitude, is expected to bring 
more “Chinese wisdom” to economic globalization.

2

 
Title The Complex World of Indian America

 Summary North America was socially and culturally complex. Vast 
differences existed among various Indian groups throughout North 
America. Pre-Columbian Indians adopted economic strategies, social 
conventions and political systems that well suited their ecological and 
historical circumstances.



Art

Unit



Introduction

What do you mean when you talk about art production and why does it matter? 
Production is at the centre of making art—it is about both artistic action and ideas to 
be explored. Throughout human history, artists may have responded to the ways of 
production differently, but their artworks always serve an essentially functional purpose 
bound with religion and ideology, giving an insight into the beliefs, lives, and practices of 
people long gone or living in the present.

This unit deals with the issue of art productions, covering topics from the creation 
of sculptures by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks to the pioneering of modern art 
(primarily, paintings) by artists, such as Paul Gauguin, Pablo Picasso, and édouard Manet.

1

 Do you know the following sculptures and their creators? Can you give more 
examples of famous sculptures and sculptors in the world?

2

 The history of Chinese ceramics can be traced 
back to over 10,000 years ago. Take the terracotta 
warriors excavated from the tomb of Emperor 
Qin Shihuang as an example. How do they tell 
us about the artistic skills of the ancient Chinese, 
and beliefs or culture of the society that created 
these terracotta sculptures?

3

 How might your interpretation of a piece of artwork be different from that of 
someone in another culture?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks



A

Text

Bringing Clay

to

Life

Stuart A. Kallen

1 Clay has long been one of the most useful substances known to humankind. As a 
natural product of the earth, clay is extremely malleable and can be easily shaped into 
cups, water jugs, bricks—and works of art. When exposed to fire, clay hardens into 
durable forms known as ceramics. Some of the oldest known human-created objects 
in the world are ceramic goddess sculptures, including the Venus of Dolní Věstonice, 
discovered in Brno in the Czech Republic. This is a 4.4-inch (11 cm) figurine, believed 
to be a female fertility goddess. The sculpture was made around 29,000 B.C. The Venus 
of Dolní Věstonice is known as an additive sculpture. The term refers to the fact that the 
artist creates the sculpture by adding more material to it. Whoever made the Venus of 
Dolní Věstonice started with a lump of clay for the body and added a head, breasts, and 
legs.

2 The Venus is one of hundreds of sculpted female figures from the prehistoric era 
that archaeologists have uncovered between Russia and northern Italy. These figures 
have symbolic qualities—they represent fertility and the source of life in a sculptural 
form. Those who possessed these elegantly modeled sculptures likely believed that the 
clay figures were imbued with the powers of the gods.

Baked earth

3 By the time the ancient Egyptians built the Great Pyramid of Giza around 2560 
B.C., symbolism and sculptures were inseparable. Religion dominated every aspect of 
Egyptian life, so each object was created as a work of symbolic art representing beliefs, 



such as life after death and the godlike powers of the pharaohs.

4 The Egyptians used a type of clay ceramic known as terracotta (Italian for “baked 
earth”) to make everything from lifelike human sculptures to dinnerware. Still used by 
sculptors today, terracotta is a mix of fine-grained dirt, water, and components, such 
as sand and lime (calcium oxide). Terracotta has a distinctive brownish-orange color 
and has long been used to make bricks.

5 When artists use terracotta clay to create a sculpture, it is baked in a kiln, or oven, 
at a temperature of about 2,000 °F (1,093℃). The earliest kilns were holes dug in the 
ground or carved into hillsides. The Egyptians had freestanding brick kilns fueled with 
wood, brush, and even animal dung. Modern kilns are gas- or electric-fired computer-
controlled units. They can range in size from small studio units—the size of a large 
garbage can—to room-sized industrial ovens.

6 After it leaves the kiln, a terracotta sculpture can be finished with colored glaze, 
a glass-like substance made from various elements and minerals. Glaze was originally 
used by Egyptian and Chinese sculptors around 1600 B.C. The ancient artists mixed 
compounds from sand, lime, and wood ash. The process of glazing clay sculptures has 
changed little since the time of the pharaohs. Glaze is applied to terracotta in a liquid 
form. The piece is then baked in a kiln for approximately 18 hours. This process causes 
the glaze to vitrify, or transform, into rock-hard permanence that can endure for 
millennia.

Greek figurines

7 Like the ancient Egyptians and Chinese, Greeks around the fifth century B.C. also 
created terracotta sculptures. Baked in kilns that the Greeks referred to as kaminos, 
these small, mass-produced clay sculptures represented Greek deities, including 
Hermes, the messenger of the gods, and the fertility goddess Demeter. People used the 
artistic figurines as religious offerings, leaving them at temple altars while petitioning 
the gods for luck, love, and revenge upon enemies. The prized terra cotta sculptures 
were also buried with the dead.

8 Around the fourth century B.C., Greek artisans in the town of Tanagra mass-
produced figurines that were appreciated for their variety of realistic poses and 
features. The sculptures possessed fine artistic details, such as rippled folds in cloaks, 
flowing wrap-around dresses, unusual wide-brimmed hats, and the coiffured hairstyles 
favored by style-conscious Greeks.

9 Tanagra figurines were around 12 inches (30 cm) high and created through the 



use of molds. Sculptors first shaped an original statue by hand and hardened it in a 
kiln. A thick layer of clay was pressed around the original to make a mold. This was 
then divided in half with a knife to create a hollow, two-sided mold that was also fired 
in the kiln. Once the mold was finished, artists pressed thin layers of soft clay into it by 
hand. As the clay dried, it contracted, or shrank, which made it easy to lift out of the 
mold.

10 The molding process was used to create numerous parts of a single sculpture. For 
example, one mold might be of a body; another of a head; and others of arms, legs, and 
other features. The more elaborate statues required up to 15 molds. Graceful maidens 
were created carrying items, such as fans, actors’ masks, or mirrors, all produced in 
separate molds. The Greeks used a glue called barbotine, made from clay and water, to 
attach the various pieces of the sculpture to one another.

11 The final figurine was fired in a kiln at temperatures of about 1,110 °F to 1,470 °F 
(600 ℃ to 800 ℃). Tanagra figurines were finished not with expensive glaze, but with 
a coating called slip, made from a powdered clay and water mixture. This was fired 
at low temperatures. In the final step, Greek artisans decorated the statue with red, 
yellow, black, and pink paints made from natural mineral dyes.

Gauguin’s “abnormal” statues

12 In the nineteenth century the style of realism revered by Renaissance masters, 
such as Michelozzo was rejected by Paul Gauguin, a Parisian painter and sculptor. 
Gauguin pioneered the modern art genre. Rather than create works of beauty that 
inspired reverence, modernists worked to express their personal emotions in their art, 
such as joy, despair, sorrow, and love.

13 Gauguin was fascinated with dramatic art created by the indigenous people 
who lived in the Caribbean, Central America, and Polynesia, the numerous islands 
scattered across the South Pacific. Although he was principally a painter, Gauguin 
began working with ceramics in the 1880s. In 1887 he created numerous ceramic 
sculptures inspired by Mexican and Polynesian deities. The sculptures defied 
acceptable artistic practices; they were misshapen, with irregular figures, and partially 
glazed with some parts deliberately left unfinished. The surfaces contained uneven 
textures, bubbles, smears, and even fingerprints. Although Gauguin was captivated 
by the sculptures, he playfully called them monstrosities in a letter to his friend, the 
painter Félix Bracquemond: “If you are curious to see all the small products of my 
extreme madness coming out of a kiln—55 pieces in good condition—you will scream 
loudly in the presence of my monstrosities but I am convinced that these things will 
fascinate you.”



14 When Gauguin displayed his ceramic sculptures, they were mocked by critics 
who labeled them primitive and savage. As critic Félix Fénéon wrote in 1888, “What 
dishonored, inauspicious and harsh stoneware, he [Gauguin] gave life to: haggard 
faces with widely spaced large eyes, or with small eyes set adjacent to the snub-nose… 
works of an abnormal and deformed geometry.”

15 Disgusted by such attitudes, Gauguin moved to Polynesia in the 1890s, where 
he created dozens of paintings of Tahitian women. In 1894 Gauguin’s Polynesian 
inspirations led him to create Oviri, his most famous sculpture. Oviri is a Tahitian 
deity of death and mourning whose name translates as “savage” or “wild”. Although 
Oviri is only 30 inches (76 cm) high, Gauguin depicted the goddess as chillingly 
ferocious. She is crushing the life out of a bloody wolf cub while its mother lies dead at 
her feet. This scene was symbolic of Oviri’s power over life as well as her indifference 
to death.

16 Troubled by ill health, drug addiction, legal problems, and poverty, Gauguin 
called Oviri “his murderess” and viewed the work as an expression of his profound 
depression. However, the painter and art critic Albert Aurier was dazzled by Oviri and 
Gauguin’s other clay figures, writing: “How to describe these strange, barbaric, savage 
ceramics in which, sublime potter, he has kneaded more soul than clay?”

Picasso and the spirits

17 Gauguin died in 1903 at age 55, but his work inspired the Spanish painter and 
sculptor Pablo Picasso, whose fame was rising rapidly in the early 1900s. According to 
the art critic John Blee, “It was Gauguin’s appreciation of Tahitian art, whose influence 
he incorporated into his own work, which led directly to Picasso’s appreciation of 
African art.”

18 In 1907 Picasso was 26 years old and living in Paris. His interest in African art 
led him to visit the Ethnological Museum located in the Trocadéro Palace near the 
Eiffel Tower. The museum was filled with carved African masks and clay statues called 
fetishes, said to have supernatural powers. Picasso was attracted to these ancient 
religious icons that had been created by African shamans, or spiritual leaders. Shamans 
used the fetishes as a way to communicate with mystical spirits to attract luck, heal the 
sick, and ward off evil.

19 Picasso went back to his studio and began making sketches featuring the angular 
heads, geometric features, and distorted body shapes found in the African sculptures. 
These African influences led Picasso to paint one of his most famous works, the 1907 
painting Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. Today the painting is seen as one of the first 



made in the cubist style conceived by Picasso. The five women in the painting barely 
resemble rounded human figures. Their bodies are cube-like, with blocky, angular 
torsos and sharp, distorted facial features. Two of the figures are wearing what appear 
to be abstractly painted African masks.

20 It was not until Picasso settled in the town of Vallauris in southern France in 1947 
that he took a great interest in clay sculptures. The region is known for its mineral-rich 
soil, which has been used to make pottery for two millennia.

21 Picasso had two young children when he moved to Vallauris, and the ceramics he 
created there reflect happiness rarely seen in his works. The sculptures are decorated 
with witty, charming designs featuring bulls, birds, and curvaceous female figures. 
Picasso called the ceramics “sculpture without tears” because the fired clay objects 
were small and easy to handle. Between 1947 and 1962 he produced about 3,000 pieces 
of clay and ceramic sculpture. Picasso went on to become one of history’s best-known 
artists, a pioneer whose works defined the twentieth-century art.

22 By creating sculptures based on indigenous art, Picasso and Gauguin brought 
terra cotta full circle from its ancient roots. As a link to the gods, as a way to express 
reverence and emotion, and as a substance to create a standing army, clay has served a 
noble purpose in the artistic development of humankind for more than 350 centuries.

(1,767 words)

additive /..d.t.v/ adj. characterized or produced by addition or method of 
creating sculpture by adding material to create the work

adjacent /..d.e.s.nt/ adj. next to or near something

altar /...lt./ n. a holy table in a church or temple

archaeologist /.ɑ.ki..l.d.ist/ n. a person who studies ancient societies

artisan /.ɑ.t..z.n/ n. a person who does skilled work, making things with their 
hands

blocky /'bl.ki/ adj. resembling a block in shape

ceramics /s..r.m.ks/ n. a pot or other object made of clay that has been made 
permanently hard by heat

chillingly /.t..l..li/ adv. in an unsettling or horrifying way

coiffure /kwɑ..fj../ n. a hairstyle, the way in which a person’s hair is arranged

crush /kr../ vt. to press or squeeze something so hard that it is damaged 


Words and Expressions



or injured, or loses its shape

cubist /.kju.b.st/ n. an artist who paints in a style of modern art in which an 
object or person is shown as a set of geometric shapes, 
or typical of this style of painting

curvaceous /k...ve...s/ adj. having an attractively curved body shape, used about 
women

defy /d..fa./ vt. to refuse to obey or show respect for somebody in authority, 
a law, a rule, etc.

deity /.de..ti/ n. a god or goddess

dinnerware /.d.n.we./ n. plates, dishes, etc. used for serving a meal

dung /d../ n. solid waste from animals, especially from large ones

durable /.dj..r.b.l/ adj. likely to last for a long time without breaking or getting 
weaker

ferocious /f..r....s/ adj. very aggressive or violent; very strong

fertility /f...t.l.ti/ n. the ability of a person, animal, or plant to produce 
babies, young animals, or seeds

fetish /.fet../ n. an object that some people worship because they 
believe that it has magic powers

figurine /.f.ɡj..ri.n/ n. a small model of a person or an animal used as a decorative 
object

glaze /ɡle.z/ n. & vt. a liquid put on clay objects, such as cups and plates 
before they are finished, to give them a hard shiny 
surface; to cover plates, cups, etc. made of clay with a 
thin liguid that gives them a shiny surface

haggard /.h.ɡ.d/ adj. looking very tired because of illness, worry or lack of sleep

imbue /.m.bju./ vt. to fill somebody or something with strong feelings, 
opinions or values

inauspicious /..n...sp...s/ adj. showing signs that the future will not be good or 
successful

indigenous /.n.d.d..n.s/ adj. belonging to a particular place rather than coming to it 
from somewhere else

kiln /k.ln/ n. a special oven for baking clay pots, bricks, etc.

knead /ni.d/ vt. to press and stretch dough, wet clay, etc. with your 
hands to make it ready to use

lime /la.m/ n. a white substance obtained by burning limestone, used 
in building materials

malleable /.m.li.b.l/ adj. (of metal, etc.) that can be hit or pressed into different 
shapes easily without breaking or cracking

misshapen /.m.s..e.p.n/ adj. not of the normal or natural shape

monstrosity /m.n.str.s.ti/ n. something that is very large and very ugly, especially a 
building

permanence /.p..m.n.ns/ n. the state of lasting for a long time or for all time in the 
future



petition /p..t...n/ vt. to make a formal request to someone in authority, to a 
court of law, or to God

pharaoh /.fe.r../ n. a ruler of ancient Egypt

prehistoric /.pri.h..st.r.k/ adj. connected with the time in history before information 
was written down

primitive /.pr.m.t.v/ adj. belonging to a very simple society with no industry, 
etc.; very simple and old-fashioned, especially when 
something is also not convenient and comfortable

Renaissance /r..ne.s.ns/ n. the period in Europe, especially in Italy, between the 
14th and 17th centuries, when there was a new interest 
in art, literature, science, and learning

revere /r..v../ vt. to respect and admire someone or something very much

savage /.s.v.d./ adj. an offensive way of referring to groups of people or 
customs that are considered to be simple and not highly 
developed

shaman /..ɑ.m.n/ n. a person in some religions and societies who is believed 
to be able to contact good and evil spirits and cure 
people of illnesses

smear /sm../ n. an oily or dirty mark

substance /.s.bst.ns/ n. a type of solid, liquid or gas that has particular qualities

terracotta /.ter..k.t./ n. hard reddish-brown baked clay

torso /.t..s../ n. the main part of the body, not including the head, arms, 
or legs

vitrify /.v.tr.fa./ vt. to change or make something change into glass, or a 
substance like glass

wrap-around /'r.p..ra.nd/ adj. a wrap-around skirt is one that you wind around your 
body and fasten in place

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. This text mainly tells stories about ancient sculptures from the archeological 
point of view.

b. This text is about the techniques of creating sculptures in the ancient time.


Exercises



c. This text reveals religious beliefs represented by sculptures from different 
cultures.

d. This text explores how sculptures are created in different civilizations and 
what purposes sculptures may have served in different cultures in the artistic 
development of humankind.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. The ceramic goddess sculpture the Venus of Dolní Věstonice, 
discovered in the Czech Republic, was created through 
accumulation of materials, such as clay.

2. The process of glazing clay sculptures has not changed much since 
the ancient Egypt.

3. In ancient Greece, the primary use of terra cotta sculptures is to be 
buried with the dead.

4. Modernist artists, such as Paul Gauguin rejected realism. In their art 
works, they preferred to express their personal emotions rather than 
create works of beauty in the realistic style.

5. Gauguin’s painting, inspired by the African sculptures, is characterized 
by geometric features, such as the angular heads and cube-like 
torsos.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. How are sculptures related to the social reality in which they were created?

2. What religious beliefs are represented in the sculptures created by the ancient 
people?

3. What did ancient Greeks use artistic figurines for?

4. Why did Gauguin create “abnormal” statues? What did they look like?

5. What do you think of Picasso’s paintings and sculptures? Are they the 
representation of the reality?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. Those who possessed these elegantly modelled sculptures likely believed that 
the clay figures were imbued with the powers of the gods. (Para. 2)

2. They can range in size from small studio units—the size of a large garbage can—
to room-sized industrial ovens. (Para. 5)

3. Greek artisans in the town of Tanagra mass-produced figurines that were 
appreciated for their variety of realistic poses and features. (Para. 8)

T F



4. This scene was symbolic of Oviri’s power over life as well as her indifference to 
death. (Para. 15)

5. Shamans used the fetishes as a way to communicate with mystical spirits to 
attract luck, heal the sick, and ward off evil. (Para. 18)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. After reading the first paragraph, can you tell why clay has long been one of the 
most useful substances known to humankind?

2. How did the ancient Egyptians use baked earth to make everything from lifelike 
human sculptures to dinnerware? Can you describe the process?

3. Both ancient Egyptians and Greeks created terracotta sculptures. Which came 
earlier according to your knowledge about art?

4. Can you describe the molding process of the Greek figurines around the fourth 
century B.C.?

5. What are the characteristics of the arts created by the indigenous people who 
lived in the Caribbean, Central America, and Polynesia?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence, and 
change the form if necessary.

substance durable fertility millennia revere
inauspicious indigenous defy endure crush

1. The designs used in the ________________ arts and crafts of this tribe are unique.

2. As we move towards the end of the ________________, people are increasingly 
widening their horizons.

3. Their enemy’s vehicle was ________________ by an army tank.

4. Many doctors and nurses in Wuhan ________________ hardship and self-sacrifice 
during the coronavirus pandemic.

5. Throughout the nineteenth century ________________ in Britain remained high.



6. The Chinese people like to send gifts in pairs, for odd numbers are regarded as 
________________.

7. Most people in the west ________________ the Bible, but few of them read it 
regularly.

8. There is absolutely no regulation of cigarettes to make sure that they don’t 
include poisonous ________________.

9. These materials are used in televisions to make them more ________________ and 
more fire-resistant.

10. She said she would ________________ the party leader and vote against him.

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

harden into captivated by incorporate into in the presence of adjacent to

1. ________________ sunlight, the surface temperature of an object is usually 
considerably higher than the temperature of the air.

2. In the months and years to follow, it would ________________ a massive barrier of 
concrete blocks, barbed wire, machine gun towers, and minefields.

3. The traveler was ________________ the postcard carrying a picture of a tattooed 
tribeswoman smoking a pipe.

4. The yard ________________ ours has a lot of insects in the garden, and now they're 
coming and eating our vegetables.

5. In architecture, tradition and history come in the very concrete and visible form 
of existing structures which the designer has to ________________ any new work.

 II. Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. Archaeologists have ________________ hundreds of sculpted female figures from 
the ancient era between Russia and northern Italy.

 a. recovered b. uncovered c. looked for d. revealed

2. There were paint ________________ visible on the doorknob.

 a. coats b. layers c. smears d. covers

3. Fields ________________ the nuclear facility were found to have high levels of 
radioactivity.

 a. separate from b. adjacent to c. remote from d. detached

4. A better understanding of these unearthed sculptures may contribute to the 



knowledge of ________________ lives.

 a. rude b. primitive c. savage d. developed

5. ________________ human settlement activities in northern Europe have been well 
studied for several decades.

 a. Present b. Antique c. Prehistoric d. Old

6. Outside the mansion, the sidewalks were ________________ ice.

 a. glazed with b. decorated with c. filled with d. polished with

7. At the beginning of each year a timetable is prepared and each year group 
follows a clearly ________________, predetermined curriculum.

 a. decided b. defined c. explaining d. labelled

8. However, due to the presence of seasonal and irregular variations, this 
assumption does not truly ________________ reality.

 a. think over b. describe c. flash d. reflect

9. The very purpose of dialogue is to find common ground and to creatively 
________________ a point of agreement where there is none.

 a. conceive b. crush c. define d. think

10. What percentage of the population would have to be ________________ to the 
virus in order for herd immunity (群体免疫)?

 a. vulnerable b. exposing c. exposed d. unmasked

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. These figures have symbolic qualities—they represent fertility and the source 
of life in a sculptural form. Those who possessed these elegantly modelled 
sculptures likely believed that the clay figures were imbued with the powers of 
the gods.

2. Sculptors first shaped an original statue by hand and hardened it in a kiln. A 
thick layer of clay was pressed around the original to make a mold. This was 
then divided in half with a knife to create a hollow, two-sided mold that was 
also fired in the kiln. Once the mold was finished, artists pressed thin layers of 
soft clay into it by hand. As the clay dried, it contracted, or shrank, which made 
it easy to lift out of the mold.

3. The sculptures defied acceptable artistic practices; they were misshapen, with 
irregular figures, and partially glazed with some parts deliberately left unfinished.

4. However, the painter and art critic Albert Aurier was dazzled by Oviri and 
Gauguin’s other clay figures, writing: “How to describe these strange, barbaric, 



savage ceramics in which, sublime potter, he has kneaded more soul than clay?”

5. By creating sculptures based on indigenous art, Picasso and Gauguin brought 
terracotta full circle from its ancient roots. As a link to the gods, as a way to 
express reverence and emotion, and as a substance to create a standing army, 
clay has served a noble purpose in the artistic development of humankind for 
more than 350 centuries.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 先将混合物移到面粉板，然后再将混合物分成四份，做成汉堡包。（shape into）

2. 他的作品总是充满了一种平静和安详的感觉。（be imbued with）

3. 失业和城市内部的衰败是不可分割的问题，必须一并解决。（inseparable）

4. 我一直对机器人很着迷，所以我正着手写一本以机器人为主角的科幻小说。
（fascinate）

5. 为了驱邪，他不停地焚香、念咒语，到头来却没有效果。（ward off）

6. 她坐的地方长着一些野花，于是她移开了，以免压到野花。（crush）

7. 关键是孩子们从小就崇拜超级英雄，或因他们所代表的东西，又或因他们所能做的
事情。（revere）

8. 鸟之将死，其鸣也哀；人之将死，其言也善。 (in the presence of）

D

 Writing

Looking at an art is an emotional and independent experience. Each person views a 
work of art through the lens of his/her own life experience and draws different meanings 
based on what he/she perceives. Do some online research and fieldwork on a piece 
of artwork that your family owns or likes best, and write an essay of no less than 300 
words about the artwork by focusing on one topic. The following questions help you to 
develop your ideas but you do not have to cover all of them:

1) What does the artwork tell?

2) Which area of the artwork do you think is emphasised by the artist? Why?

3) What kind of art form do you think the artwork is in? What kind of artistic skill 
was used in creating the artwork?

4) What are the functions and uses of this artwork in its settings?

5) What does the artwork tell about the values and beliefs of the society in which it 
was created?

6) How does the social and cultural background in which the artwork was created 
shape your understanding of it?



The Art Institute of Chicago explores the great paradox of the 19th century’s greatest 
painter: from a scandalous youth of frank nudes to flowers, fruit bowls, and fashionable 
women.

1 Chicago—I wonder how often he thought back on it: the outrage, the reproaches, 
the shame, the folly. In 1865, two years after they rejected his Déjeuner sur l’Herbe, the 
gatekeepers of the Paris Salon accepted two paintings by édouard Manet into Europe’s 
most prestigious exhibition. One was a slablike, Spanish-influenced religious scene of 
Christ mocked by Roman legionaries. But it was the other that eclipsed more than 3,500 
other works in the Salon, and set off a scandal that makes the recent brouhaha at the 
Whitney Biennial look as stately as a Noh drama.

2 Visitors shouted and bawled in front of Olympia, a radically flat depiction of a 
common prostitute, her servant and her cat with pitiless candor. Art students threw 


B

Text

Manet’s Last Years:

A Radical Embrace

Beauty

of

Jason Farago


In the Conservatory, circa 
1877–1879, one of the last major 
works by édouard Manet, depicts 
a fashionable couple who live their 
private lives in public.



punches. Security guards had to be called in. The newspapers published brutal 
caricatures of Manet and his models, and art critics savaged it as “vile” “ugly” “stupid” 
“shameless”, a work that “cries out for examination by the inspectors of public health”.

3 A more bohemian artist might have relished the hatred. Not Manet. He was a 
bourgeois Parisian, hungry for public approval and civic honors, even as he painted 
works of such frankness that they kept him outside the establishment. He had struck 
the first blows for modern art, but it came at a punishing social cost. And as he got 
older, he leaned away from the plainness of his scandalous youth to paint flowers, fruit 
bowls, and fashionable women, all in a lighter, pleasanter key that found favor even in 
the hidebound Salon.

4 This is the great paradox of the 19th century’s greatest painter, and it’s the crux, 
too, of the exhibition “Manet and Modern Beauty”, on view at the Art Institute of 
Chicago, which focuses on the art of Manet’s last six or seven years before his early 
death in 1883, at the age of 51. Fresh, charming, a bit evasive and almost too stylish, 
“Manet and Modern Beauty” sticks up for these later portraits, genre scenes and 
still lifes—which the last century’s art historians, enraptured by Olympia and her ilk, 
tended to dismiss with the three Fs: frivolous, fashionable and (worst of all) feminine.

5 “Manet and Modern Beauty” has a further mission: to pump up the reputation of 
one of Manet’s last paintings, Jeanne (Spring), which the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los 
Angeles acquired in 2014 after more than a century in the shadows. Painted in 1881—
and first exhibited in the 1882 Salon with the much more famous A Bar at the Folies-
Bergère (not on view here)—Jeanne depicts a fashionable Parisienne lost in thought as 
she walks through a garden.

 


6 Its forthright cheerfulness comes as a challenge to those of us still hung up on 
the brawnier, more shocking image of modernity Manet forged two decades earlier 

One of Manet’s last paintings, Jeanne 
(Spring), from 1881, is the centerpiece of the 
exhibition. The J. Paul Getty Museum in Los 
Angeles acquired it in 2014 after more than a 
century in the shadows.



with Déjeuner and Olympia. (The show will travel to the Getty in October; it’s been 
organised by Gloria Groom, the Art Institute’s chair of European painting, and the 
Getty curators Scott Allan and Emily Beeny.)

7 Manet’s embrace of beauty in the late 1870s went together with a keen gaze on 
the social milieu of the new Third Republic, finally recovering from its defeat in the 
Franco-Prussian War and throwing off an old moral order. Brilliant scenes of Paris 
café culture—including Plum Brandy (1877), depicting a glum woman musing over 
a drink and a cigarette at a marble table, and The Café-Concert (circa 1878–1879), in 
which a top-hatted gent and a working-class woman nurse beers together—display an 
engagement with public leisure and sexual mores that would culminate in the optical 
and social riddle of the Bar.

8 Many late still lifes, too, make a virtue of pleasure and urbanity. One astounding 
painting here, from a private collection and not exhibited in nearly 20 years, depicts 
a half-dozen oysters and a chilled champagne bottle with arresting briskness, and 
includes a Japanese fan that would have been the height of fashion. “One must be 
absolutely modern,” Rimbaud commanded a few years previously, and Manet held fast 
to that principle—treating the cafés and parks of Paris as not just sites of enjoyment 
but also venues where new life was made from scratch.

9 Manet had always been an adept of women’s fashion, and “Manet and Modern 
Beauty” looks carefully at how clothing and accessories work to signal modernity in 
the artist’s late work.

10 In the large, tight, equivocal In the Conservatory (circa 1877–1879), a woman on 
a bench stares impassively into the middle distance, while a man leans down in silent 
vexation. Their left hands, each sporting a wedding band, dangle near each other but 
do not touch. What compounds the painting’s ambiguous force—Is this a flirtation? 
A break-up? A reconciliation?—Is the woman’s up-to-the-minute outfit: a form-
fitting gray dress with an accordion-pleated train, set off with a silk belt and bow and 
enlivened with a hat, glove and parasol in jasmine yellow. The picture is as open as 
Olympia is blunt, and Manet captures it all with indefinite, flowing brush strokes that 
give it a startling freshness.

11 Unlike the plein-air impressionists who worshiped him, Manet was a studio 
artist to the end, and as his health began to fail in 1879 he took to smaller formats, 
sometimes aimed at the market and often shared with friends. He wrote letters that 
included exquisite sketches of plums, chestnuts, even a shrimp. Pastels become a 
favored medium after 1880, especially for pictures of women.



12 Small, luscious still lifes of fruit and flowers, made when Manet was in chronic 
pain, display the judiciousness that makes them even more delectable. 

13 “Manet and Modern Beauty” owes a lot to feminist scholarship on the artist over 
the last 30 years, and even the curators’ choice of walls of muted rose and dusky lilac 
signals their embrace of the “feminine” epithet that opponents of the late work once 
hurled. But there have always been many Manets, and even the later, tenderer Manet 
coexists with an artist of deep political engagement and historical sweep. The glaring 
absences in this exhibition—even more than the Bar—are Manet’s 1881 portrait of 
the exiled Communard Henri Rochefort, as well as his two late great seascapes, both 
titled Rochefort’s Escape and painted in 1880–1881. As Mr. Allan writes in the catalog, 
Manet’s last years coincided with “an epochal political shift leftward” in France, and 
these maritime paintings with a political prisoner form the last act in Manet’s long 
interweaving of historical painterly styles and current events.

14 I suspect those works are not here so as to leave the last word to Jeanne, the Getty’s 
prize, who also appears on the catalog’s cover and on posters all over Chicago. May the 
gods of French painting forgive me, but Jeanne is a banal and overly refined picture, 
and its marriage of fashion and foliage tips exhibits a vulgarity wholly unlike the cool, 
careful In the Conservatory. The curators make hay from the fact that in 1882, visitors 
and critics at the Salon preferred the bright, pleasant Jeanne to the darker, stranger 
Bar. But I’m not sure why the same contemporary critics who slimed Olympia now get 
to have the definitive word on which Manets matter most.

15 I made three passes of “Manet and Modern Beauty”, and between the second and 
third I went upstairs to see the Art Institute’s most prized Manet: the pancake-flat 
Jesus Mocked by the Soldiers, which survived the outraged crowds of the 1865 Salon. 
Its blank background and disdain for illusion are miles away from the floral profusion 
of Jeanne. And I tried to shake my conviction that Jesus Mocked—a masterpiece of 
candor, so proud to be a two-dimensional slab of oil and canvas—counts for more 
than the fashionable scenes below.

16 Why do I value this early Manet so much more? It is only because I think art has a 
higher vocation than delivering joy?

17 Or is it because, poor modern boy that I am, I have been trained by more than a 
century of artists and writers to be suspicious of beauty—that ruse, that luxury, that 
feminine thing? The received history of modern western painting, over which Manet 
looms like our great bourgeois Allfather, can feel like a succession of attacks on beauty 
by generations of arrogant men, each more certain than the last that their art would 
at last redeem an ugly society. But Manet knew that there is as much rebellion and 



insight in a dress, a bouquet or even a pile of strawberries if he could see past their 
surfaces to the richness within. That is another path to modernity, grounded in what 
his dear friend Baudelaire, in The Painting of Modern Life, called “beauty, fashion and 
happiness”.

(1,543 words)

accordion /..k..di.n/ n. a musical instrument like a large box, held in both of 
the player’s hands and played by pressing the sides 
together and pulling them out again, while the player 
pushing buttons and keys

banal /b..nɑ.l/ adj. very ordinary and containing nothing that is interesting 
or important

bawl /b..l/ vi. to shout loudly, especially in an unpleasant or angry way

bohemian /b...hi.mi.n/ adj. living in a very informal or relaxed way and not accepting 
society’s rules of behaviour

bourgeois /.b...wɑ./ adj. belonging to the middle class

brawny /.br..ni/ adj. very large and strong

briskness /'br.skn.s/ n. liveliness

brouhaha /.bru.hɑ.hɑ./ n. (old-fashioned, informal) noisy excitement or complaints 
about something

candor /.k.nd./ n. the quality of being honest and telling the truth, even 
when the truth may be unpleasant or embarrassing

caricature /.k.r.k.t.../ n. a funny drawing of someone that makes he or she look silly

civic /.s.v.k/ adj. connected with the people who live in a town or city

conservatory /k.n.s..v.t.ri/ n. a room with glass walls and a glass roof that is built on 
the side of a house

culminate /.k.lm.ne.t/ vi. to end with a particular result, or at a particular point

curator /kj..re.t./ n. a person whose job is to be in charge of the objects or 
works of art in a museum or art gallery, etc.

delectable /d..lekt.b.l/ adj. (of food and drink) extremely pleasant to taste, smell or 
look at

dusky /.d.ski/ adj. not very bright; dark or soft in colour

enliven /.n.la.v.n/ vt. to make something more interesting or more fun

enrapture /.n.r.pt../ vt. to give somebody great pleasure or joy

epithet /.ep.θet/ n. a word or phrase that is used to describe someone’s 
character or most important quality, especially in order 
to give praise or criticism


Words and Expressions



epochal /'ep.k.l/ adj. highly significant or important, especially bringing about 
or marking the beginning of a new development or era

equivocal /..kw.v.k.l/ adj. not having one clear or definite meaning or intention; 
able to be understood in more than one way

evasive /..ve.s.v/ adj. not willing to give clear answers to a question

exquisite /.k.skw.z.t/ adj. extremely beautiful or carefully made

feminist /.fem.n.st/ adj. of or relating to or advocating equal rights for women

flirtation /fl...te...n/ n. behaviour that shows you find somebody sexually 
attractive but are not serious about them; a short period 
of time during which somebody is involved or interested 
in something, often not seriously

floral /.fl..r.l/ adj. consisting of pictures of flowers; decorated with pictures 
of flowers

foliage /.f..li-.d./ n. the leaves of a tree or plant; leaves and branches 
together

forthright /.f.:θra.t/ adj. direct and honest in manner and speech

gent /d.ent/ n. (humourous) a man; a gentleman

hidebound /.ha.dba.nd/ adj. having old-fashioned ideas, rather than accepting new 
ways of thinking

hurl /h..l/ vt. to throw something or somebody violently in a particular 
direction

judicious /d.u..d...s/ adj. careful and sensible; showing good judgement

legionary /.li.d..n.ri/ n. a soldier who is part of a legion

lilac /.la.l.k/ adj. of a pale purple color

luscious /.l...s/ adj. having a strong pleasant taste

optical /..pt.k.l/ adj. connected with the sense of sight or the relationship 
between light and sight

plein-air /'ple.n'e./ adj. (of a painting) having the qualities of air and natural light

profusion /pr..fju...n/ n. a very large quantity of something

reconciliation /.rek.ns.li.e...n/ n. an end to a disagreement and the start of a good 
relationship again

relish /.rel../ vt. to get great pleasure from something; to want very much 
to do or have something

scandalous /.sk.nd.l.s/ adj. shocking and unacceptable

seascape /.si.ske.p/ n. a picture or view of the sea

slab /sl.b/ n. a thick flat piece of stone, wood or other hard material

urbanity /...b.n.ti/ n. refined courtesy or politeness; the quality or character of 
life in a city or town

vexation /vek.se...n/ n. the state of feeling upset or annoyed

vulgarity /v.l.ɡ.r.ti/ n. the fact of being rude or not having good taste; a rude 
object, picture, etc.



Discuss the following questions. 

1. What is the great paradox of the nineteenth century’s greatest painter, and the 
crux of the exhibition “Manet and Modern Beauty”?

2. Can you give some examples to illustrate how Manet’s late works signal 
modernity of his time?

3. What does the author mean by saying that “there have always been many 
Manets”?

Reflective Work

1. Manet was the first modernist painter whose paintings are seen to have ushered 
in the era of modernism. What kind of new subject matters, painterly values, 
and spatial relationships did Manet endeavour to explore in his paintings? And 
why did Manet paint pictures that he knew would upset people? 

2. How do you understand the concept of modernism in the history of art? What 
are the characteristics of modernist paintings?

Intercultural Thinking

1. What themes and characteristics of modernism are shared by art and literature? 

2. What exactly did the modernist artists and writers want to achieve through 
their works?


Exercises

Discussion and Exploration



Further Reading

1

 
Title Why We Make Art

 Summary Seven artists explain why they write, rap, take photos, draw, 
dance, and make movies. These artists come up with diverse and interesting 
ideas about making art. For example, they mention making art for fun and 
adventure; building bridges between themselves and the rest of humanity; 
reuniting and recording fragments of thought, feelings, and memory; and 
saying things that they can’t express in any other way.

2

 
Title Into the Millennium: Moving Beyond Modernism

 Summary This article presents a survey of American commercial 
design since the mid-20th century in the context of socio-cultural 
and even political context. It covers high modernism in the 1960s, 
the counterculture and alternative design in the late 1960s and the 
1970s, the “Design Decade” that moved unexpectedly from obscurity 
to near celebrity during the 1980s as international competition forced 
manufacturers to offer more than anonymous products, postmodern 
design from high-tech to high-touch. It also provides a glimpse of the 
commercial design based on the advancement of digital technology since 
the early 1970s.

3

 
Title Power and Status

 Summary This article believes that portraits act as signifiers of the status 
of the individuals they represent. It reveals this secret by exploring the 
relationship between portraiture and patronage, and between portraiture 
and the formation of bourgeois identity. To demonstrate this, it also 
examines some typical examples of portraits of rulers, the genius and the 
celebrities, as well as the unknown and underclass.



Science and

Technology

Unit



Introduction

Introduction

Technological innovation is a permanent theme of human history. Generally 
speaking, technological innovation comprises activities that contribute to the research, 
development and design of new products, services or techniques, or to improving 
existing products, and generates new technological knowledge. On the one hand, 
technological innovation plays an increasingly prominent role in the progress of human 
civilization and the growth of leading industrial economies. Models of the innovation 
process have evolved over time. The divergence of innovative capacity in different 
societies can be understood in terms of social capital and public policy. But, on the 
other hand, the fast pace of technological change, including developments in artificial 
intelligence and synthetic biology, adds to uncertainties human beings are faced with. 
Thus responsible policy-making is required to direct scientific and technological 
innovations to serve public needs.

1

 Can you name some great technical innovations and technical innovators of the 
18th and 19th centuries?

2

 What are the negative and positive connotations of “revolution”?

3

 What is your understanding of “technical revolution”?

Pre-reading Tasks

43

Unit

Science and Technology



A

Text

Interpreting

the

Mikael Hard1 & 

Andrew Jamison2

Revolution

1 As with the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century, interpretations of the 
so-called Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have shifted 
over time. It was in the late nineteenth century, as part of the consolidation of history 
as an academic discipline, that Arnold Toynbee attached the revolutionary label to the 
events that had taken place one hundred years before. As it began to be used, the term 
took on negative connotations, because the late 1800s was a period of active social 
reform, and economic and social historians played their part by investigating the social 
problems that had been associated with the transition to industrial society. It was only 
later, and especially during the boom years of the postwar period, that historians came 
to describe the Industrial Revolution in more positive terms, attempting to derive 
from the transformations that had taken place a more general understanding of the 
conditions of economic growth and science-based development.

2 At the center of these economic histories are the technical innovations and the 
technical innovators. Certain radical innovations, as Joseph Schumpeter called them, 
were seen to have served as motors for a general process of change. They were said 
to have come in clusters, or meaningful combinations, at particular points in time. 
Crucially important in the early phase of industrialization were a number of machines 
and chemical techniques that were developed in the 1770s and 1780s and were rapidly 
applied to different areas of manufacturing: clothing and ceramics, in particular. 


1 Mikael Hard: a professor of the History of Technology at the Technical University Darmstadt Scloss in Germany.

2 Andrew Jamison: a professor of Technology and Society at Aalborg University in Denmark.



At the same time, James Watt made fundamental technical improvements to the 
efficiency of the steam engine, which helped make it possible to develop production 
sites away from the rivers that had previously provided the main sources of power. 
Completing the cluster were the innovations that were made in relation to coal mining 
and exploitation, which effectively and substantially increased the supply of energy 
to the factories where the new machines were located. According to the economic, 
or innovation, story line, it was primarily the diffusion of this innovation cluster that 
propelled economic growth and the enormous increases in output and productivity 
that marked the first stage of industrialization.

3 The heroic tales are of the factory owners who applied the machinery to 
industrial purposes, and of the scientists and inventors who made the key creative 
breakthroughs. Like the innovations they made, the innovators also clustered around 
certain places—such as the “lunar men” around Birmingham: Josiah Wedgwood, 
James Watt, Samuel Boulton, Joseph Priestley, and Erasmus Darwin. Wedgwood 
was the innovator who brought chemistry and modern production techniques to 
the pottery and ceramics industry, whereas Watt and Boulton were the team that so 
successfully combined technical expertise with business acumen. Priestley was the 
tireless proponent of political and scientific progress, and one of the main contributors 
to the making of modern chemistry, and Darwin, a medical doctor, helped implant 
the new technological interests into the wider culture through his poetry and 
philosophizing, which later influenced the evolutionary theory of his famous 
grandson, Charles Darwin. Not least because of their personal interaction and their 
collaborative projects with one another, these scientists, engineers and businessmen 
were the kind of individuals who “made the future” we are told, by putting mechanical 
instruments to industrial use.

4 Many of the important technological innovations of the first period of 
industrialization were developed in specific settings for specific purposes, but as 
industrialization progressed, production and the process of innovation became more 
systematic and complex. The horizontal and vertical integration of the capital-goods 
industry, the standardization of parts—starting with the production of instruments 
of warfare—and the emergence of the machine-tool industry as a central branch 
were especially important in the expansion of industrialization across the European 
and American continents. The development of new power sources and industrial 
materials—especially oil and steel—were also crucial components of the second 
wave, or cycle, of industrialization in the latter half of the nineteenth century. These 
innovations—along with railroad locomotives and telegraphic communication—
provided the material conditions for the consolidation of what institutional economists 
have termed “national systems of innovation” by which inventiveness and creativity 



were transformed into economically significant activities. These systems involved a 
range of new institutions—educational, financial, legal, and technical and scientific—
all of which were organized somewhat differently in each industrializing country.

5 The basic narrative of the economic story line focuses on the specific institutions 
of innovation and the more general institutions of capital accumulation—factories and 
joint-stock companies, banks and corporations, regulatory laws and state agencies—
that brought about what we call the incorporation of technology and science into 
the pursuit of business. As the process grew more complex and multifaceted, the key 
individuals, the “system-builders” as historian Thomas Hughes called them, came to 
acquire ever more skills and develop a more scientific, or expert, competence. The 
factory owners of the late eighteenth century and the famous entrepreneurs were 
gradually replaced by the railroad tycoons, investment bankers, corporate managers, 
and, not least, scientific inventors of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 
And, as such, the stories of the so-called Second Industrial Revolution, which took 
place in the late nineteenth century, have often been tales of corporate expansion, 
featuring the heroic sagas of the Carnegies and the Du Ponts, the Siemens and the 
Rockefellers, the Citroens and the Wallenbergs, the Edisons and the Fords.

6 Regardless of how one judges the industrialization process, it is important to 
remember that it was controversial at the time in which it was taking place. What has 
been brought into focus by recent scholarship is the conflictual, or contested, nature of 
the industrial transformation. As Maxine Berg, one of the leading proponents of this 
new cultural history of industrialization, wrote:

 The machine was not an impersonal achievement to those living 
through the Industrial Revolution; it was an issue. The machinery question in 
early nineteenth-century Britain was the question of the sources of technical 
progress and the impact of the introduction of the new technology of the 
period on the total economy and society.

7 From the perspective of the history of technology and science, one of the most 
important sources of debate and disagreement has been about the role that science 
played in the industrial transformation of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. To 
what extent was there a direct connection between the forms of knowledge making 
that had been constituted in the seventeenth century and the forms of economic 
activity that characterized the Industrial Revolution? What contribution did science 
and scientists actually make to industrialization?

8 More than any particular scientific theory or science-based idea, the idea of 
progress was central to the deep changes that began in the mid-eighteenth century. 



And in that change of attitude, science played a major role, directly and indirectly. 
Before the industrial transformation, most people lived on the land, and they obtained 
their livelihoods from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing and forestry. There were 
other people, of course—priests, doctors, craftsmen, merchants, soldiers—who were 
separated from the lifeworlds of primary production and who derived their social 
status from some kind of specialized skill or knowledge. But for the most part, the role 
of knowledge making in those preindustrial societies was directly related to everyday 
life experiences. People learned most of what they needed to know by observing their 
parents and neighbors and by trying to do the things that they did. Most of what they 
knew was not formalized or codified but informal and tacit, an experiential and highly 
situated form of cognition. Knowledge was customary, rather than scientific, and it 
was produced and communicated in informal settings rather than in formal research 
and educational institutions.

9 The emergence of modern science in the seventeenth century challenged these 
traditional forms of knowledge and knowledge making. For one thing, science 
provided ways of knowing—mathematical logic, systematic experimentation, 
mechanical models—that were different from the older forms. Scientific knowledge 
was abstract, but it could be communicated in writing and applied to different tasks. 
By means of systematic experimentation, for instance, craftsmen—in cooperation with 
men of science and not seldom supported by the state—could make the traditional 
techniques of energy production, mining and metallurgy, and manufacturing and 
agriculture more efficient. With the help of mathematical reasoning, new kinds of 
regulation and management could be developed, and mechanical models could 
provide much greater degrees of precision and possibilities for control over normal 
processes of primary and secondary production. It was not until the mid-nineteenth 
century that such effort really began to pay off. More important in the early period 
than the particular scientific methods was the progressive project, the ambition to 
develop knowledge for the expressed purpose of improving things and creating things 
that did not yet exist.

10 This utopian imagining, rather than any specific uses of scientific knowledge, 
was perhaps the most significant role that science played in relation to the early 
period of industrialization. Across Europe and North America, as science gained 
more adherents in the course of the eighteenth century, ever more people began to 
envision another kind of society, based on the applications of scientific—technological 
rationality. Science, we might say, helped to open up the realm of the imagination—
sometimes to such a degree that it took on the character of hubris: the overextension 
and superhuman transgression that were characterized by Friedrich Nietzsche at 
the end of the nineteenth century as the übermensch, or superman, driven by an 



excessive will to power. As Humphrey Jennings put it in his remarkable collection of 
documents tracing the “coming of the machine”, the new realistic, scientific attitude, 
or what he called a “fundamental alteration of ‘vision’ ” in the course of the eighteenth 
century, was “being achieved not merely as a result of changing means of production 
but also making them possible”. And the dual revolution—the political revolutions 
that ushered in democracy and the technical and economic revolutions that ushered 
in industrialization—was the immediate outcome, we might say, of this altered vision.

(1,656 words)

accumulation /..kju.mj..le...n/ n. an increase by natural growth or addition 

acquire /..kwa../ vt. to get or gain something 

alteration /...lt..re...n/ n. a small change that makes someone or something 
slightly different, or the process of this change 

attach /..t.t./ vt. to fasten or connect one object to another 

boom /bu.m/ n. a quick increase of business activity

cluster /.kl.st./ vi. & n. to be or come into a close group; a group of things of 
the same kind that are very close together

connotation /.k.n..te...n/ n. a quality or an idea that a word makes you think of that 
more than its basic meaning 

derive /d..ra.v/ vt. to get something, especially an advantage or a pleasant 
feeling, from something

diffusion /d..fju...n/ n. the spreading of heat, light, liquid, etc. through something

emergence /..m..d..ns/ n. the gradual beginning or coming forth 

entrepreneur /..ntr.pr..n../ n. someone who starts a new business or arranges 
business deals in order to make money, often in a way 
that involves financial risks 

excessive /.k.ses.v/ adj. much more than what seems reasonable or necessary 

expansion /.k.sp.n..n/ n. the process of becoming greater in size, number, or 
amount

expertise /.eksp...ti.z/ n. special skill or knowledge in a particular subject, that 
you learn by experience or training 

hubris /.hju.br.s/ n. too much pride 

innovation /..n..ve...n/ n. a new idea, method, or invention 

propel /pr..pel/ vt. to move, drive, or push something forward 

proponent /pr..p..n.nt/ n. a person who supports something, or who pleads for a 
cause or propounds an idea


Words and Expressions



transform /tr.ns.f..m/ vt. to completely change the appearance, form, or 
character of something or someone, especially in a way 
that improves it 

transition /tr.n.z...n/ n. something changes from one form or state to another 

usher /..../ vt. to help someone to get from one place to another, 
especially by showing him/her the way

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. To describe the Industrial Revolution in both negative and positive terms. 

b. To interpret the cultural history of technology and science.

c. To highlight the role of science in different stages of Industrial Revolution.

d. To state the processes of Industrial Revolution.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. The technical innovations and the technical innovators played 
important roles in economic histories. 

2. A number of machines and chemical techniques were developed in 
the early phase of industrialization. 

3. Scientists, engineers and businessmen put mechanical instruments 
to industrial use. 

4. The so-called Second Industrial Revolution, which took place 
in the late eighteenth century, has often been tales of corporate 
expansion.

5. There existed debate and disagreement about the role that 
science played in the industrial transformation of the eighteenth 
and nineteenth centuries from the perspective of the history of 
technology and science.

6. Knowledge in the preindustrial societies was customary and it was 


Exercises

T F



produced and communicated in informal settings rather than in 
formal research and educational institutions.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. When the term “Industrial Revolution” began to be used, why did it take on 
negative connotations?

2. What marked the first stage of Industrial Revolution?

3. According to institutional economists, what did the “national systems of 
innovation” contain?

4. What contributions did science actually make to industrialization?

5. How did the emergence of modern science in the seventeenth century 
challenge the traditional forms of knowledge and knowledge making?

6. According to Humphrey Jennings, what was the immediate outcome of 
“fundamental alteration of ‘vision’ ”?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. At the center of these economic histories are the technical innovations and the 
technical innovators. (Para. 2)

2. Regardless of how one judges the industrialization process, it is important to 
remember that it was controversial at the time in which it was taking place. 
(Para. 6)

3. From the perspective of the history of technology and science, one of the 
most important sources of debate and disagreement has been about the role 
that science played in the industrial transformation of the eighteenth and 
nineteenth centuries. (Para. 7)

4. Knowledge was customary, rather than scientific, and it was produced and 
communicated in informal settings rather than in formal research and 
educational institutions. (Para. 8)

5. By means of systematic experimentation, for instance, craftsmen—in cooperation 
with men of science and not seldom supported by the state—could make the 
traditional techniques of energy production, mining and metallurgy, and 
manufacturing and agriculture more efficient. (Para. 9)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. How do you judge the influence of Industrial Revolution on British society? 



2. In Para. 7, it is mentioned that one of the most important sources of debate 
and disagreement has been about the role that science played in the industrial 
transformation of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Do you think so 
and why? 

3. What is your opinion about the role of human experience and science in 
Industrial Revolution?

4. In Para. 8, it is mentioned that the idea of progress was central to the deep 
changes. Do you want to make some fundamental changes during your university 
life? If you do, what is your idea of progress?

5. According to the first sentence of Para. 9, the emergence of machine translation 
may exert some effects on your learning. What is your view?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. He spent years ________________ his skills as a surgeon.

 a. acquiring b. practicing c. getting d. using

2. For most people, “motherhood” has a very positive ________________. 

 a. view b. expression c. idea d. connotation

3. It will not surprise you to learn that Eugene Wigner has been a leading 
________________ of this view.

 a. role b. proponent c. person d. man

4. He had the right experience and ________________ qualifications for the job.

 a. good b. better c. academic d. proper

5. Many factors, or combinations of factors, can contribute to disease ________________.

 a. disappearance b. spreading c. occurrence d. emergence

6. Many students ________________ enormous satisfaction from the course.

 a. felt b. had c. got d. derived

7. We must encourage ________________ if the company is to remain competitive.

 a. innovation b. rules c. people d. challenge

8. Making the ________________ from youth to adulthood can be very painful.

 a. change b. transition c. time d. turn



9. People ________________ the old days with good times, and seem to forget the 
hardship they endured.

 a. recall b. associate c. regard d. think

10. Scientists have made a major ________________ in the treatment of cancer.

 a. breakthrough b. result c. research d. study

11. There are various ________________ for dealing with industrial pollution.

 a. questions b. types c. problems d. techniques

12. The rapid ________________ of cities can cause social and economic problems. 

 a. expansion b. increase c. moving d. development

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

in particular transform...into from the perspective of
derive...from rather than apply to in relation to
serve as be replaced by obtain...from

1. New technology is being ________________ almost every industrial process.

2. The reforms ________________ a model for the rest of the world. 

3. Kids ________________ will love the rides and shows.

4. In most cases the literature which we discuss offers clear priorities and quite 
explicit points of view ________________ photographic cultures. 

5. ________________ driving around all day looking for somewhere to park, why 
don’t you take a bus into town? 

6. We live in an intellectual wasteland where creativity________________ the 
exigencies of the marketplace.

7. Further information can ________________ head office. 

8. The novel is written ________________ a child.

9. Many colleges ________________ most of their income ________________ tuition fees. 

10. These bodies cannot be considered truly incorrupt since the tissues 
________________another substance.

 II. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate forms of the given words.

1. Energy ________________ measures the proportion of energy which is wasted. The 
rate at which energy is wasted needs to be reduced and there are a number of 



ways to save energy, especially thermal energy. (efficient)

2. This team so successfully ________________ technical expertise with business 
acumen that they made great achievements in such a short period. 
(combination)

3. Educational institutions in China are organized quite ________________ from 
those of European and American countries. (difference)

4. The privileged country should have its workers ________________ in their 
comparative advantage. (specialize)

5. We can now ________________ instantly with people on the other side of the 
world to share information by speaking, writing, moving your body, or using 
other signals.

6. The idea of collaboration seems easy enough, but in reality, it can be quite 
challenging to ________________ with others, for each person on a team has 
different strengths and weaknesses. (collaboration)

7. The ancient Chinese printing technology ________________ and improved by 
other countries. (diffusion)

8. These changes will not only ________________ the rapid expansion of the total 
amount of online information but also promote more convenient sharing of 
online information in a larger scope. (propel)

9. People with self-discipline can not only ________________ wealth but also establish 
their careers. (accumulation)

10. Second language ________________ is the process by which people learn a second 
language, and is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. 
(acquire)

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. As with the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century, interpretations of 
the so-called Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 
have shifted over time. 

2. At the center of these economic histories are the technical innovations and the 
technical innovators.

3. Before the industrial transformation, most people lived on the land, and they 
obtained their livelihoods from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing and 
forestry.

4. People learned most of what they needed to know by observing their parents 
and neighbors and by trying to do the things that they did. 



5. And the dual revolution—the political revolutions that ushered in democracy 
and the technical and economic revolutions that ushered in industrialization—
was the immediate outcome, we might say, of this altered vision. 

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 这项新技术推广得很快。（diffuse）

2. 蒸汽机的发明标志着第一次工业革命的开端。（the first stage）

3. 先进的工业革命技术推动了英国的经济增长。（propel）

4. 技术的革新在工业化早期进程中起着重要作用。（innovation）

5. 企业扩张对资本积累和收入分配产生显著影响。（accumulation）

6. 企业家们坚持不懈的努力使工资和工作条件问题的解决取得了关键性突破。
（entrepreneur）

7. 这幅肖像富有社会内涵和艺术借鉴意义，是一个非常有趣的例子。（connotation）

8. 一些批评人士认为，过度关注商业将会导致科研人员忽视纯科学。（excessive）

D

 Writing

Historians described the Industrial Revolution in both positive and negative terms 
concerning its effects on the social transformation and economic development. Write 
an essay of no less than 300 words about the effects of Industrial Revolution on China’s 
social reform and scientific development.

In the first paragraph, state your opinions about the effects of Industrial Revolution 
on China in general terms.

In the second paragraph, provide your specific analysis on the effects of the 
Industrial Revolution.

In the third paragraph, conclude your analysis.



Autonomous-vehicle technology is advancing ever faster. Making vehicles drive 
themselves is hard, but getting easier.

1 The modern automotive era began with a competition. In the early 1890s, there 
was much interest in the emerging technology of horseless carriages, which promised 
to combine the speed of a train with the flexibility of a horse and the convenience of a 
bicycle. Le Petit Journal, a French newspaper with a knack for publicity stunts, decided 
to hold a contest to discover the best method of propulsion: steam, electricity or petrol 
engine. It invited entrants to drive from Paris to Rouen, a distance of 79 miles. Their 
vehicles would be judged not by their speed but whether they were safe, easy to use 
and economical to run.

2 The competition, held in July 1894, attracted crowds of onlookers as 21 
contraptions set out from Paris. Only 17 vehicles stayed the course; along the way, 
seven dogs were run over and one cyclist was injured. The clear winner was not a 
direct participant but an inventor: Gottlieb Daimler, whose internal-combustion 
engine had powered nine of the vehicles, including the four that shared first prize. 
He had, the judges proclaimed, “turned petroleum or gasoline fuel into a practical 
solution” for self-propelled vehicles, which were starting to be referred to in French 
as “automobiles”. Daimler’s victory helped establish the supremacy of petrol-powered 
cars in the twentieth century, and the term “automobile” soon spread into English and 
other languages.

3 Fittingly, the modern era of autonomous vehicles also began with a competition, 
held in March 2004 in the Mojave Desert. It was organized by DARPA, America’s main 


B

Text

From Here

Autonomy

to



military-research agency, and required driverless vehicles to navigate a 150-mile off-
road course. A total of 21 teams qualified, but after pre-contest trials and mishaps, 
only 12 vehicles crossed the starting line. Amid mechanical failures and encounters 
with ditches, none of them made it to the finish. Carnegie Mellon’s Sandstorm, the 
vehicle that did best, traveled 7.4 miles before getting stuck; as it tried to free itself, its 
front wheels caught fire.

4 It seemed that DARPA had set the bar too high. Yet when it held another 
competition in October 2005, five of the 23 participants completed the entire 132-
mile course, and all but one beat the 7.4-mile record from the previous year. The 
winning vehicle was built by a team from Stanford University led by Sebastian Thrun; 
Sandstorm finished second. In just 18 months, autonomous driving had gone from 
hopeless to feasible. In a third DARPA contest, in November 2007, vehicles had to 
complete tasks in a simulated urban environment, coping with road signs, traffic 
signals and other vehicles. Six out of 11 teams completed this much more complex 
challenge.

5 Encouraged by this rapid progress, Google set up a self-driving car project in 
2009, led by Mr. Thrun. Since then the participants in the various DARPA contests 
have gone on to work on autonomous-vehicle technology at Google, Uber, Tesla 
and a host of start-ups. Prototype self-driving cars first took to America’s public 
roads in 2012; they have since traveled millions of miles and have become steadily 
more capable. But the technology is not ready for mass deployment just yet. A fully 
autonomous car must solve three separate tasks: perception (figuring out what is going 
on in the world), prediction (determining what will happen next) and driving policy 
(taking the appropriate action). The last of these is the simplest, making up just 10% of 
the problem, says Mr. Thrun; perception and prediction are the hard parts.

6 Autonomous cars perceive the world through a combination of sensors including 
cameras, radar and LIDAR—a radar-like technique that uses invisible pulses of light to 
create a high-resolution 3D map of the surrounding area. The three complement each 
other. Cameras are cheap and can see road markings, but cannot measure distance; 
radar can measure distance and velocity, but cannot see in fine detail; LIDAR provides 
fine detail but is expensive and gets confused by snow. Most people working on 
autonomous vehicles believe a combination of sensors is needed to ensure safety and 
reliability. (Tesla is a notable exception: It hopes to achieve full autonomy without the 
use of LIDAR.) High-end LIDAR systems currently cost tens of thousands of dollars, 
but start-ups are devising new solid-state designs that should eventually reduce the 
price to a few hundred dollars.



7 Having combined the data from its sensors, the car needs to identify the items 
around it: other vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, road markings, road signs and so forth. 
Humans are much better at this than machines, which have to be trained with lots of 
carefully labelled examples. One way to obtain them is to pay people to label images 
manually. Mighty AI, based in Seattle, has an online community of 300,000 people 
who carefully label images of street scenes for a range of automotive clients. “We 
want cars to have human judgment,” says Mighty AI’s boss, Daryn Nakhuda, “and 
for that we need human expertise.” Imagery from video games such as “Grand Theft 
Auto”, which features strikingly realistic street scenes, can also help. Because the game 
software knows what everything is, it can label such scenes with perfect accuracy, 
allowing them to be used for training.

8 The hardest things to identify, says Mr. Thrun, are rarely seen items such as debris 
on the road or plastic bags blowing across a highway. In the early days of Google’s AV 
project, he recalls, “Our perception module could not distinguish a plastic bag from 
a flying child.” Puddles on the road can also cause confusion. Combining data from 
multiple sensors, however, can reveal whether an item on the road is a solid obstacle 
or not. Cars can also compare their sensor readings with those gathered previously by 
other cars on the same road, learning from each other’s experiences in a process called 
“fleet learning”. That gives an edge to first movers with thousands or millions of miles 
of self-driving experience under their belts; but some start-ups also create and sell 
ready-made high-resolution maps for use by AVs.

9 Once a vehicle has identified everything around it, it needs to predict what will 
happen in the next few seconds and decide how to respond. Road signs, traffic lights, 
brake lights and turning signals provide some clues. But AVs are at a disadvantage to 
human drivers who are used to dealing with exceptions to the normal flow of traffic, 
such as roadworks, broken-down vehicles, delivery trucks, emergency vehicles, fallen 
trees or bad weather. Snow is a particular challenge: LIDAR systems must be carefully 
tuned to ignore falling snow, and accumulations of snow on the roads make high-
resolution street maps less accurate.

10 While the technology is still being developed, it helps to stick to limited areas 
that have been mapped in detail and generally have good weather. That explains why 
Phoenix, with its sunshine and regular grid system, is a popular place to test AVs. 
Pittsburgh is considered more difficult because of its harsher weather. Cruise, an AV 
start-up now owned by GM, has demonstrated some impressive autonomous driving 
in the complex streets of downtown San Francisco. Kyle Vogt, Cruise’s boss, argues that 
testing in densely populated environments means cars experience unusual situations 
more often, and thus learn faster.



 

11 When an AV gets confused and does not know how to respond, or makes the 
wrong decision, the safety engineer in the driving seat takes over. This is known as a 
“disengagement”, and the number of disengagements per 1,000 miles traveled provides 
a crude measure of how the companies developing AVs compare (see the chart 
above). Disengagements are best seen not as failures but as learning experiences that 
help AV systems improve. Sensor data recorded in the lead-up to a disengagement 
can reveal what the car got wrong, says Noah Zych, head of safety at Uber’s AV unit. 
Modifications to its software can then be tested in simulation. “We can play it back 
again and again, vary the scenario and see the distribution of outcomes,” says Mr. 
Zych. The improved software is then rolled out in real cars.

12 “You have to make the vehicle so it can operate in the world as it is today,” says 
Chris Urmson of Aurora, an autonomous-driving start-up. But things should get easier 
in future. There may be road lanes or entire districts dedicated to AVs, and special 
equipment to support them, known as vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) technology. 
Already, in some areas where AVs operate, traffic lights have been modified to tell 
approaching vehicles when they will change. In future, V2I and V2V (vehicle-to-
vehicle) technology should allow AVs to coordinate their actions better. The public 
seems concerned mainly about two potential risks associated with AVs. The first is 
how they should respond to ethical dilemmas: say, choosing hitting a group of children 
on the road or swerving and hitting another vehicle. Many people working in the field 
think that such questions do not reflect the real world, and point out that the best 
course of action is usually to slam on the brakes. AVs have superhuman, 360-degree 
perception and much faster reaction times, notes Danny Shapiro of NVIDIA, a 
chipmaker whose products power AVs.

13 The second worry is about cyber-attacks. AVs, which are essentially computers on 
wheels, could be remotely hijacked or sabotaged. Engineers working on AVs insist that 
they take cyber-security very seriously, and say that the multiple redundant sensors 



and control systems they build in to make a vehicle mechanically safe will also provide 
some protection. If any part of the vehicle starts to behave strangely, for whatever 
reason, it will stop. “It is easier to use an ordinary vehicle to kill people than to take 
control of a driverless car,” says Mr. Sapet.

14 AVs are on the cusp of working on public roads, at least in orderly environments 
with good weather. “Once you can crack that nut, it’s incremental,” says Mr. Urmson. 
For his part, Mr. Thrun has moved on to a new challenge: building cars that fly. 
Automotive bosses think he is crazy, he admits. But until quite recently they were just 
as skeptical about self-driving cars.

(1,676 words)

automotive /...t..m..t.v/ adj. relating to cars 

knack /n.k/ n. a natural skill or ability

stunt /st.nt/ n. a dangerous action that is done to entertain people, 
especially in a film 

propulsion /pr..p.l..n/ n. the force that drives a vehicle forward 

entrant /.entr.nt/ n. someone who takes part in a competition 

contraption /k.n.tr.p..n/ n. a piece of equipment or machinery that looks funny, 
strange, and unlikely to work well 

supremacy /s..prem.si/ n. the position in which you are more powerful or advanced 
than anyone else 

navigate /.n.v.ɡe.t/ vi. to find which way you need to go when you are traveling 
from one place to another 

mishap /.m.sh.p/ n. a small accident or mistake that does not have very 
serious results 

amid /..m.d/ prep. while noisy, busy or confused events are happening; 
used in writing or news reports 

encounter /.n.ka.nt./ vt. to experience something, especially problems or 
opposition 

ditch /d.t./ n. a long narrow hole dug at the side of a field, road, etc. 
to hold or remove unwanted water

feasible /.fi.z.b.l/ adj. a plan, idea or method that is possible and is likely to 
work 

simulate /.s.mj.le.t/ vt. to make or produce something that is not real but has 
the appearance or feeling of being real 


Words and Expressions



resolution /.rez..lu...n/ n. a formal decision or statement agreed on by a group of 
people, especially after a vote 

debris /.debri./ n. the pieces of something that are left after it has been 
destroyed in an accident, explosion, etc. 

puddle /.p.dl/ n. a small pool of liquid, especially rainwater 

harsh /hɑ../ adj. difficult to live in and very uncomfortable 

swerve /sw..v/ vt. to make a sudden sideways movement while moving 
forwards, usually in order to avoid hitting something 

hijack /.ha.d..k/ vt. to use violence or threats to take control of a plane, 
vehicle or ship 

crack /kr.k/ vt. to break or to make something break, either so that it 
gets lines on its surface, or so that it breaks into pieces 

skeptical /.skept.k.l/ adj. tending to disagree with what other people tell you 

incremental /...kr..mentl/ adj. increasing in amount or value gradually and by a regular 
amount 

petroleum /p..tr..li.m/ n. oil that is obtained from below the surface of the Earth 
and is used to make petrol, paraffin, etc.

Discuss the following questions.

1. What was the significance of Daimler’s victory in the competition?

2. What types of tasks should a fully autonomous car fulfill?

3. What are the main potential risks about the autonomous cars? 

4. Do you think the autonomous cars are feasible on public roads? Why?

5. How can the autonomous cars perceive the world?


Exercises



Reflective Work

1. As mentioned in the text, some people are skeptical about self-driving cars. If 
you go out for traveling, will you choose the self-driving car or the high-speed 
train? Why?

2. If inventors can make flying cars, do you think it is a good thing or a bad thing?

Intercultural Thinking

The autonomous cars may be operated all over the world, and become more 
popular among people in different fields. If so, it will bring some changes to our society 
and lives. Please give your opinions and comments on the autonomous cars.

Discussion and Exploration

Further Reading

1

 
Title Chinese Automobile Industry’s Position in the Global 

 Value Chain

 Summary This article offers a brief introduction about the global automotive 
industry, and points out Chinese automobile industry’s position in 
the global value chain. Concerning the global automotive industrial 
development, the U.S.A., Germany and Japan play leading roles and 
export the most technically complex automotive products, while China 
is still hampered by incompetence in research and development and by 
the lack of core technologies. Thus China is deficient in its ownership 
of truly internationally influential automotive parts manufacturers with 
independent brands. But from the perspective of the global value chain, 
China, as the largest automobile manufacturer in the world, lies in the 
important part of the chain and occupies its special position in the global 
automotive parts trade. Currently, Chinese automobile industry needs to 
be intimately integrated into each link of the global value chain, and needs 
to improve its core technology of automotive products.



2

 
Title Technology in the Ancient World

 Summary This article excerpted from Britannica provides a brief 
introduction to technology in the ancient world. It gives a survey of the 
history of technology from the Stone Age (to c. 3000 B.C.) to the Urban 
Revolution (c. 3000 B.C.–500 B.C.) to the technological achievements of 
ancient Greece and Rome (c. 500 B.C.–500 A.D.), involving issues such as 
power, tools and weapons, metallurgy, manufacturing, building, irrigation 
and agriculture.



Philosophy

Unit



Introduction

What is true happiness? It is a simple but complex question. You may get an answer 
based on your personal understanding or feeling from your everyday life. For scholars, 
especially philosophers, that is not an easy job, for happiness is not just a matter of how 
you feel. A philosophical and convincing answer requires your profound, original, and 
challenging insights. Text A expatiates Aristotle’s exploration on this issue and warns us of 
our fallibility resulting from our blind relying on “truth by authority”. Text B is an excerpt 
from Erich Fromm’s Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics. It illustrates 
man’s biological weakness compared to animals’ and the existential and historical 
dichotomies in man, which are called the human situation, and to which how man can 
react “to succeed in his task: to be himself and for himself and to achieve happiness 
by the full realization of those faculties which are peculiarly his—of reason, love, and 
productive work”.

1

 Were you happy when you were a kid? Why or why not?

2

 What is your understanding of happiness?

3

 How do you think your happiness relates to others?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks


64

综合英语



A

Text

True 

Happiness

Nigel Warburton

1 “One swallow doesn’t make a summer.” You might think this phrase comes from 
William Shakespeare or another great poet. It sounds as if it should. In fact it’s from 
Aristotle’s book The Nicomachean Ethics1, so called because he dedicated it to his son 
Nicomachus. The point he was making was that just as it takes more than the arrival 
of one swallow to prove that summer has come, and more than a single warm day, 
so a few moments of pleasure don’t add up to true happiness. Happiness for Aristotle 
wasn’t a matter of short-term joy. Surprisingly, he thought that children couldn’t be 
happy. This sounds absurd. If children can’t be happy, who can? But it reveals how 
different his view of happiness was from ours. Children are just beginning their lives, 
and so haven’t had a full life in any sense. True happiness, he argued, required a longer 
life.

2 Aristotle was Plato’s student, and Plato had been Socrates’. So these three great 
thinkers form a chain: Socrates–Plato–Aristotle. This is often the way. Geniuses don’t 
usually emerge from nowhere. Most of them have had an inspirational teacher. But the 
ideas of these three are very different from each other. They didn’t simply parrot what 
they had been taught. Each had an original approach. Put simply, Socrates was a great 
talker, Plato was a superb writer, and Aristotle was interested in everything. Socrates 


1 The Nicomachean Ethics: a compilation of Aristotle’s lecture notes, probably named after or dedicated to Aristotle’s 
son, Nicomachean. Aristotle first used the term “ethics” to name a field of study developed by his predecessors 
Socrates and Plato. Aristotle emphasized the importance of developing excellence (virtue) of character (Greek ēthikē 
aretē), as the way to achieve what is finally more important, excellent conduct (Greek energeia). Aristotle argues that 
the man who possesses character excellence does the right thing, at the right time, and in the right way.



and Plato thought of the world we see as a pale reflection of true reality that could only 
be reached by abstract philosophical thought; Aristotle, in contrast, was fascinated by 
the details of everything around him.

3 Unfortunately, almost all the writing by Aristotle that survives is in the form 
of lecture notes. But these records of his thinking have still made a huge impact 
on western philosophy, even if the writing style is often dry. But he wasn’t just a 
philosopher: he was also fascinated by zoology, astronomy, history, politics and drama.

4 Born in 384 B.C., after studying with Plato, travelling, and working as a tutor to 
Alexander the Great, Aristotle set up his own school in Athens called the Lyceum2. 
This was one of the most famous centres of learning of the ancient world, a bit like 
a modern university. From there he sent out researchers who returned with new 
information about everything from political society to biology. He also started an 
important library. In a famous Renaissance painting by Raphael3, The School of Athens4, 
Plato points upwards to the world of the Forms; in contrast, Aristotle is reaching out 
towards the world in front of him.

5 Plato would have been content to philosophize from an armchair; but Aristotle 
wanted to explore the reality we experience through the senses. He rejected his 
teacher’s Theory of Forms5, believing instead that the way to understand any general 
category was to examine particular examples of it. So to understand what a cat is he 
thought you needed to look at real cats, not think abstractly about the Form of cat. 

6 One question that Aristotle mulled over was “How should we live?” Socrates and 
Plato had both asked it before him. The need to answer it is part of what draws people 
to philosophy in the first place. Aristotle had his own answer. The simple version of it 
is this: seek happiness.

7 But what does that phrase “seek happiness” mean? Today most people told to 
seek happiness would think of ways they could enjoy themselves. Perhaps happiness 
for you would involve exotic holidays, going to music festivals or parties, or spending 

2 the Lyceum: a gymnasium near Athens and the site of a philosophical school founded by Aristotle.

3 Raphael (1483–1520): recognized as the supreme High Renaissance painter for centuries, more versatile than 
Michelangelo and more prolific than their older contemporary Leonardo. His example as a paragon of classicism 
dominated the academic tradition of European painting until the mid-19th century.

4 The School of Athens: a painting by the Italian master Raphael from 1590 to 1511. It was hugely influential at the time 
and is remembered as the perfection of artistic ideals from the time period. The painting features several figures 
from classical Greece, and is a statement about the coexistence of pagan Greek philosophy and modern Christian 
Italian culture, as the basis for European civilization.

5 Theory of Forms: a theory in philosophy developed by philosopher Plato. Plato’s Theory of Forms can be summed 
up as follows: 1) All things are physical manifestations of forms; 2) Knowledge is only ever knowledge of the forms, 
and beliefs are of the material world; 3) The highest form is that of the good.



time with friends. It might also mean curling up with your favourite book, or going to 
an art gallery. But although these might be ingredients in a good life for Aristotle, he 
certainly didn’t believe that the best way to live was to go out and seek pleasure in these 
ways. That on its own wouldn’t be a good life, in his view. The Greek word Aristotle 
used was “eudaimonia”6 (pronounced “you-die-moania”, but meaning the opposite). 
This is sometimes translated as “flourishing” or “success” rather than “happiness”. It 
is more than the sort of pleasant sensations you can get from eating mango-flavoured 
ice cream or watching your favourite sports team win. Eudaimonia isn’t about fleeting 
moments of bliss or how you feel. It’s more objective than that. This is quite hard to 
grasp as we are so used to thinking that happiness is about how we feel and nothing 
more.

8 Think of a flower. If you water it, give it enough light, maybe feed it a little, then it 
will grow and bloom. If you neglect it, keep it in the dark, let insects nibble its leaves, 
allow it to dry out, it will wilt and die, or at best end up as a very unattractive plant. 
Human beings can flourish like plants too, though unlike plants we make choices for 
ourselves: we decide what we want to do and be.

9 Aristotle was convinced that there is such a thing as human nature, that human 
beings, as he put it, have a function. There is a way of living that suits us best. What 
sets us apart from other animals and everything else is that we can think and reason 
about what we ought to do. From this he concluded that the best kind of life for a 
human being was one that used our powers of reason.

10 Surprisingly, Aristotle believed that things you don’t know about—and even 
events after your death—could contribute to your eudaimonia. This sounds odd. 
Assuming there is no after-life, how could anything that happens when you are no 
longer around affect your happiness? Well, imagine that you are a parent and your 
happiness in part rests on the hopes for your child’s future. If, sadly, that child falls 
seriously ill after your own death, then your eudaimonia will have been affected by 
this. In Aristotle’s view, your life will have got worse, even though you won’t actually 
know about your child’s sickness and you are no longer alive. This brings out well his 
idea that happiness is not just a matter of how you feel. Happiness in this sense is your 
overall achievement in life, something that can be affected by what happens to others 
you care about. Events outside your control and knowledge affect that. Whether you 
are happy or not depends partly on good luck.

11 The central question is: “What can we do to increase our chance of eudaimonia?” 

6 eudaimonia: also spelled eudaemonia, in Aristotelian ethics, the condition of human flourishing or of living well. For 
Aristotle, eudaimonia is the highest human good, the only human good that is desirable for its own sake (as an end 
in itself) rather than for the sake of something else (as a means toward some other end).



Aristotle’s answer was: “Develop the right kind of character.” You need to feel the right 
kind of emotions at the right time and these will lead you to behave well. In part this 
will be a matter of how you’ve been brought up, since the best way to develop good 
habits is to practise them from an early age. So luck comes in there too. Good patterns 
of behaviour are virtues; bad ones are vices.

12 Think of the virtue of bravery in wartime. Perhaps a soldier needs to put his 
own life at risk in order to save some civilians from an attacking army. A foolhardy 
person has no concern whatsoever for his own safety. He might rush into a dangerous 
situation too, perhaps even when he does not need to, but that’s not true bravery, only 
reckless risk-taking. At the other extreme, a cowardly soldier can’t overcome his fear 
enough to act in an appropriate way at all, and will be paralysed with terror at the 
very moment when he is most needed. A brave or courageous person in this situation, 
however, still feels fear, but is able to conquer it and take action. Aristotle thought that 
every virtue lies in between two extremes like this. Here bravery is halfway between 
foolhardiness and cowardice. This is sometimes known as Aristotle’s doctrine of the 
Golden Mean7.

13 Aristotle’s approach to ethics isn’t just of historical interest. Many modern 
philosophers believe that he was right about the importance of developing the virtues, 
and that his view of what happiness is was accurate and inspiring. Instead of looking 
to increase our pleasure in life, they think, we should try to become better people and 
do the right thing. That is what makes a life go well.

14 All this makes it sound as if Aristotle was just interested in individual personal 
development. But he wasn’t. Human beings are political animals, he argued. We need 
to be able to live with other people and we need a system of justice to cope with the 
darker side of our nature. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to life in a 
society. We live together, and need to find our happiness by interacting well with those 
around us in a well-ordered political state.

15 There was one unfortunate side effect of Aristotle’s brilliance, though. He was so 
intelligent, and his research was so thorough, that many who read his work believed 
he was right about everything. This was bad for progress, and bad for philosophy in 
the tradition that Socrates had started. For hundreds of years after his death most 
scholars accepted his views of the world as unquestionably true. If they could prove 
that Aristotle had said something, that was enough for them. This is what is sometimes 
called “truth by authority”—believing something must be true because an important 
“authority” figure has said it is.

7 Golden Mean (philosophy): a general rule of moderation, avoiding both extreme excess and extreme deficiency.



16 What do you think would happen if you dropped a piece of wood and a piece of 
heavy metal that was the same size from a high place? Which would hit the ground 
first? Aristotle thought that the heavier one, the one made of metal, would fall faster. 
In fact, this isn’t what happens. They fall at the same speed. But because Aristotle 
declared it to be true, throughout the medieval period just about everyone believed 
that it must be true. No more proof was needed. In the sixteenth century Galileo 
Galilei supposedly dropped a wooden ball and a cannonball from the leaning tower 
of Pisa to test this out. Both reached the ground at the same time. So Aristotle was 
wrong. But it would have been quite easy to show this much earlier.

17 Relying on someone else’s authority was completely against the spirit of Aristotle’s 
research. It’s against the spirit of philosophy too. Authority doesn’t prove anything 
by itself. Aristotle’s own methods were investigation, research and clear reasoning. 
Philosophy thrives on debate, on the possibility of being wrong, on challenging views, 
and exploring alternatives. Fortunately, in most ages there have been philosophers 
ready to think critically about what other people tell them must be so.

(1,766 words)

bliss /bl.s/ n. perfect happiness or enjoyment

civilian /s..v.lj.n/ n. & adj. anyone who is not a member of the military forces or the 
police; associated with civil life or performed by persons 
who are not active members of the military

dedicate /.ded.ke.t/ vt. to give a lot of one’s time and effort to a particular 
activity or purpose because he/she thinks it is important; 
to say at the beginning of a book or film, or before 
a piece of music, that it has been written, made, or 
performed for someone that you love or respect

dry /dra./ adj. not interesting

exotic /.ɡ.z.t.k/ adj. unusual and exciting because of coming (or seeming to 
come) from far away, especially a tropical country

fleeting /.fli.t../ adj. lasting for only a short time 

foolhardy /.fu.lhɑ.di/ adj. taking stupid and unnecessary risks

ingredient /.n.ɡri.di.nt/ n. a quality you need to achieve something; one of the 
things from which something is made, especially one 
of the foods that are used together to make a particular 
dish


Words and Expressions



inspirational /..nsp..re...n.l/ adj. providing encouragement or new ideas

medieval /.medi.i.v.l/ adj. connected with the Middle Ages (=the period between 
about 1100 A.D. and 1500 A.D.)

mull /m.l/ vi. to reflect deeply on something, or think about something 
for a long time before deciding what to do

paralyse /.p.r.la.z/ vt. to make something unable to operate normally; to make 
somebody unable to feel or move all or part of their 
body

parrot /.p.r.t/ vt. & n. to repeat exactly what someone else says, without 
understanding it or thinking about its meaning; a tropical 
bird with a curved beak

philosophize /f..l.s.fa.z/ vt. to talk about serious subjects in detail or for a long time 

reckless /.rekl.s/ adj. not caring or worrying about the possible bad or 
dangerous results of certain actions

wilt /w.lt/ vi. to become limp and weak because it is too dry or old

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. The text tells us how to seek happiness.

b. The text explains what true happiness is in Aristotle’s view, and how we can 
adhere to the spirit of philosophy.

c. The text tries to illustrate what the spirit of philosophy is.

d. The text intends to elaborate on the reason why we should think critically.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. According to Aristotle, children could be very happy.

2. Aristotle was Plato’s student, and Plato had been Socrates’.

3. According to Aristotle, your happiness relates to yourself and others 
as well.


Exercises

T F



4. Reckless risk-taking means bravery.

5. Aristotle’s approach to ethics is only of historical interest.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. How are the three great thinkers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle different from 
each other?

2. How will you “seek happiness”?

3. Why are human beings political animals according to the text?

4. What is “truth by authority”? What’s your attitude to it?

5. How can we think critically according to the text and what is your opinion?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. Socrates and Plato thought of the world we see as a pale reflection of true reality 
that could only be reached by abstract philosophical thought; Aristotle, in 
contrast, was fascinated by the details of everything around him. (Para. 2)

2. Plato would have been content to philosophize from an armchair; but Aristotle 
wanted to explore the reality we experience through the senses. (Para. 5)

3. Eudaimonia isn’t about fleeting moments of bliss or how you feel. It’s more 
objective than that. (Para. 7)

4. Philosophy thrives on debate, on the possibility of being wrong, on challenging 
views, and exploring alternatives. (Para. 17)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. Of the three thinkers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, who do you think is the 
greatest? Why?

2. What disciplines do you think happiness relates to? And how do you understand 
happiness from different disciplines?

3. What is true happiness according to Aristotle? Do you agree with his opinion? 
Why or why not?



Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. It is________________ to go out in such terrible weather.

 a. ridiculous b. funny c. odd d. interesting

2. Having her as a professor and adviser, I can tell you that she is an ________________ 
force who pushes her students to excel far beyond their expectations.

 a. educational b. excessive c. instantaneous d. inspirational

3. The accounts have always been handled ________________ the bank’s policies.

 a. in line with b. in connection with

 c. in accordance with d. in contrast with

4. The railway was opened________________traffic________________ April 4, 1985.

 a. to; on b. for; on c. by; on d. to; in

5. It’s a pleasure for him to ________________ his energy and time to research work.

 a. dedicate b. dictate c. ascribe d. direct

6. Military scientists have long been intrigued by the potential harnessing of 
microwave technology to________________ enemy capabilities.

 a. damage b. paralyse c. propel d. persecute

7. Irrationality is what is considered to be the most important ________________ that 
makes a horror story.

 a. ingredient b. section c. part d. role

8. His mouth stinging and burning, Virgil hurried to the kitchen for water to wash 
away the dish’s ________________ taste.

 a. earthy b. exotic c. cloying d. acrid

9. If you let the words enter your mind, you may be surprised to discover that 
they make ________________.

 a. sense b. sensible c. sensitive d. sensation

10. Their conversation was unsettling, for the gravity of their topic contrasted so 
oddly with the ________________ of their tone.

 a. uniqueness b. rapidity c. lightness d. precision



B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

in any sense in relation to on one’s own set apart add up to
curl up with rather than set up rest on bring out

1. The women doctors and women nurses in the hospital________________ two 
hundred and five.

2. The changes that went on were very considerable indeed, but they were not 
sudden, nor were they________________ reversals of the general process.

3. You’d better pay attention to the new regulations for________________ academic 
organizations.

4. Kick off your flip-flops, pour yourself a lemonade, and________________the 
summer’s best seller.

5. No single country or institution will be able to resolve this crisis ________________.

6. However, for many Americans today, weekend work has unfortunately become 
the rule________________ the exception.

7. Every month he________________ part of his salary to buy some additional 
furniture.

8. We shouldn’t feel conceited and self-satisfied and________________our laurels 
because of some success.

9. I know only harsh training and an intense life can ________________ my full 
potential.

10. This is a measure of a person’s weight ________________ height.

 II. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate forms of the given words.

1. Whenever we were depressed, we ________________ ourselves. (indulgence)

2. The customer ________________ the precise type of house he wanted. (specifically)

3. We felt a definite ________________ to our hosts for their kindness. (oblige)

4. Alexander Pope was a great English ________________. (satirical)

5. The students sang ________________ at the skating party. (merriment)

6. He would have been criticized for________________, extravagance and amateurism.
(reckless)

7. Her living room is also her office, filled with desks, books, papers, a testimony 
to her ________________ to work. (dedicate)

8. How I cursed the cowardice of the neighbours; how I blamed my poor mother 



for her honesty and her greed, for her past ________________ and present 
weakness! (foolhardy)

9. Only when you are forty and looking back does youth look________________. 
(bliss)

10. The house is simple and elegant, modern and full of great ________________. 
(exotic)

11. My own life is the only thing I can speak ________________ about. (authority)

12. New ways to treat arthritis may provide an ________________ to painkillers. 
(alternate)

13. The latest promotion was further ________________ of how good he was at his job. 
(prove)

14. These were estates his father ________________ acquired. (question)

15. That visit ________________ my interest in this extraordinary country. 
(inspirational)

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following paragraphs into Chinese.

1. But what does that phrase “seek happiness” mean? Today most people told 
to seek happiness would think of ways they could enjoy themselves. Perhaps 
happiness for you would involve exotic holidays, going to music festivals or 
parties, or spending time with friends. It might also mean curling up with 
your favourite book, or going to an art gallery. But although these might be 
ingredients in a good life for Aristotle, he certainly didn’t believe that the best 
way to live was to go out and seek pleasure in these ways. That on its own 
wouldn’t be a good life, in his view.

2. Aristotle was convinced that there is such a thing as human nature, that human 
beings, as he put it, have a function. There is a way of living that suits us best. 
What sets us apart from other animals and everything else is that we can think 
and reason about what we ought to do. From this he concluded that the best 
kind of life for a human being was one that used our powers of reason.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 花点时间想想这些问题，不妨进行深刻的自我反省。假如你还是认为自己具备创业
所需的条件，那么就放手去干吧。（mull over）

2. 简而言之，爱因斯坦的观点就是，宇宙中每一物体都有其自身的“时间”，并随着物
体运动的不同而不同。（put simply）

3. 因此，在这助人为乐的时代，让我们向那些最需要帮助的人伸出援手。（reach out to）



4. 教师的职业道德状况不仅对教育、教学质量产生重要影响，也会影响到整个社会的
和谐与稳定。（make an impact on）

5. 教科书是文化的载体，是社会主流文化的体现。教科书是中小学阶段学生学习的主
要资源，其重要性毋庸置疑。（a reflection of）

6. 我们应该鼓励该国向国际社会提供所需要的一切保证，以确保它所寻求的是和平的
核计划。（be convinced）

7. 从中我们可以得出结论：科学革命不仅改变了我们对世界的看法，而且改变了我们
治理社会、做出经济决策、鼓励技术革新的方法。（conclude）

8. 在大城市，高昂的房价是年轻人无法承受的负担。鉴于这一状况，政府采取了一系
列的措施来防止房价过快增长，包括提高利率及增加房产税等。目前，这些措施在
部分城市已经取得了初步的成效。（take measures）

D

 Writing

Throughout the history, both philosophers and ordinary people have tried to figure 
out the meanings of true happiness, and different people have different understandings 
of it. Write an essay with no less than 300 words based on your life experiences to 
illustrate your understanding of true happiness.



1 One individual represents the human race. He is one specific example of the 
human species. He is “he” and he is “all”; he is an individual with his peculiarities and 
in this sense unique, and at the same time he is representative of all characteristics 
of the human race. His individual personality is determined by the peculiarities of 
human existence common to all men. Hence the discussion of the human situation 
must precede that of personality.

Man’s biological weakness

2 The first element which differentiates human from animal existence is a negative 
one: the relative absence in man of instinctive regulation in the process of adaptation 
to the surrounding world. The mode of adaptation of the animal to its world remains 
the same throughout; if its instinctual equipment is no longer fit to cope successfully 
with a changing environment, the species will die out. The animal can adapt itself, 
to changing conditions by changing itself—autoplastically; not by changing its 
environment—alloplastically. In this fashion it lives harmoniously, not in the sense of 
absence of struggle but in the sense that its inherited equipment makes it a fixed and 
unchanging part of its world; it either fits in or dies out.

3 The less complete and fixed the instinctual equipment of animals, the more 
developed is the brain and therefore the ability to learn. The emergence of man can 
be defined as occurring at the point in the process of evolution where instinctive 
adaptation has reached its minimum. But he emerges with new qualities which 


B

Text

Human 

The

Situation

Erich Fromm1


1 Erich Fromm (1900–1980): an acclaimed German-American social psychologist, humanistic philosopher, sociologist 
and psychoanalyst, deeply associated with Frankfurt School of Critical Theory.



differentiate him from the animal: his awareness of himself as a separate entity, his 
ability to remember the past, to visualize the future, and to denote objects and acts 
by symbols; his reason to conceive and understand the world; and his imagination 
through which he reaches far beyond the range of his senses. Man is the most helpless 
of all animals, but this very biological weakness is the basis for his strength, the prime 
cause for the development of his specifically human qualities.

The existential and the historical dichotomies in man

4 Self-awareness, reason, and imagination have disrupted the “harmony” which 
characterizes animal existence. Their emergence has made man into an anomaly, into 
the freak of the universe. He is part of nature, subject to her physical laws and unable 
to change them, yet he transcends the rest of nature. He is set apart while being a part; 
he is homeless, yet chained to the home he shares with all creatures. Cast into this 
world at an accidental place and time, he is forced out of it, again accidentally. Being 
aware of himself, he realizes his powerlessness and the limitations of his existence. He 
visualizes his own end: death. Never is he free from the dichotomy of his existence: he 
cannot rid himself of his mind, even if he should want to; he cannot rid himself of his 
body as long as he is alive—and his body makes him want to be alive.

5 Reason, man’s blessing, is also his curse; it forces him to cope everlastingly with 
the task of solving an insoluble dichotomy. Human existence is different in this 
respect from that of all other organisms; it is in a state of constant and unavoidable 
disequilibrium. Man’s life cannot “be lived” by repeating the pattern of his species; he 
must live. Man is the only animal that can be bored, that can be discontented, that can 
feel evicted from paradise. Man is the only animal for whom his own existence is a 
problem which he has to solve and from which he cannot escape. He cannot go back 
to the pre-human state of harmony with nature; he must proceed to develop his reason 
until he becomes the master of nature, and of himself.

6 The emergence of reason has created a dichotomy within man which forces him 
to strive everlastingly for new solutions. The dynamism of his history is intrinsic to 
the existence of reason which causes him to develop and, through it, to create a world 
of his own in which he can feel at home with himself and his fellow men. Every stage 
he reaches leaves him discontented and perplexed, and this very perplexity urges him 
to move toward new solutions. There is no innate “drive for progress” in man; it is the 
contradiction in his existence that makes him proceed on the way he set out. Having 
lost paradise, the unity with nature, he has become the eternal wanderer (Odysseus, 
Oedipus, Abraham, Faust); he is impelled to go forward and with everlasting effort 
to make the unknown known by filling in with answers the blank spaces of his 
knowledge. He must give account to himself of himself, and of the meaning of his 



existence. He is driven to overcome this inner split, tormented by a craving for 
“absoluteness”, for another kind of harmony which can lift the curse by which he was 
separated from nature, from his fellow men, and from himself.

7 This split in man’s nature leads to dichotomies which I call existential because they 
are rooted in the very existence of man; they are contradictions which man cannot 
annul but to which he can react in various ways, relative to his character and his culture.

8 The most fundamental existential dichotomy is that between life and death. The 
fact that we have to die is unalterable for man. Man is aware of this fact, and this very 
awareness profoundly influences his life. But death remains the very opposite of life 
and is extraneous to, and incompatible with, the experience of living. All knowledge 
about death does not alter the fact that death is not a meaningful part of life and that 
there is nothing for us to do but to accept the fact of death; hence, as far as our life is 
concerned, defeat. “All that man has will he give for his life” and “the wise man”, as 
Spinoza says, “thinks not of death but of life.” Man has tried to negate this dichotomy 
by ideologies, e.g., the Christian concept of immortality, which, by postulating an 
immortal soul, denies the tragic fact that man’s life ends with death.

9 That man is mortal results in another dichotomy: while every human being is 
the bearer of all human potentialities, the short span of his life does not permit their 
full realization under even the most favorable circumstances. Only if the life span of 
the individual were identical with that of mankind could he participate in the human 
development which occurs in the historical process. Man’s life, beginning and ending 
at one accidental point in the evolutionary process of the race, conflicts tragically with 
the individual’s claim for the realization of all of his potentialities. Of this contradiction 
between what he could realize and what he actually does realize he has, at least, a 
dim perception. Here, too, ideologies tend to reconcile or deny the contradiction by 
assuming that the fulfillment of life takes place after death, or that one’s own historical 
period is the final and crowning achievement of mankind. Still another maintains 
that the meaning of life is not to be found in its fullest unfolding but in social service 
and social duties; that the development, freedom, and happiness of the individual 
is subordinate to or even irrelevant in comparison with the welfare of the state, the 
community, or whatever else may symbolize eternal power, transcending the individual.

10 Man is alone and he is related at the same time. He is alone inasmuch as he is a 
unique entity, not identical with anyone else, and aware of his self as a separate entity. 
He must be alone when he has to judge or to make decisions solely by the power of 
his reason. And yet he cannot bear to be alone, to be unrelated to his fellow men. His 
happiness depends on the solidarity he feels with his fellow men, with past and future 
generations.



11 Radically different from existential dichotomies are the many historical 
contradictions in individual and social life which are not a necessary part of human 
existence but are man-made and soluble, soluble either at the time they occur or at a 
later period of human history. The contemporary contradiction between an abundance 
of technical means for material satisfaction and the incapacity to use them exclusively 
for peace and the welfare of the people is soluble; it is not a necessary contradiction 
but one due to man’s lack of courage and wisdom. The institution of slavery in ancient 
Greece may be an example of a relatively insoluble contradiction, the solution of which 
could be achieved only at a later period of history when the material basis for the 
equality of man was established.

12 The distinction between existential and historical dichotomies is significant 
because their confusion has far-reaching implications. Those who were interested in 
upholding the historical contradictions were eager to prove that they were existential 
dichotomies and thus unalterable. They tried to convince man that “what must not 
be cannot be” and that he had to resign himself to the acceptance of his tragic fate. 
But this attempt to confuse these two types of contradictions was not sufficient to 
keep man from trying to solve them. It is one of the peculiar qualities of the human 
mind that, when confronted with a contradiction, it cannot remain passive. It is set 
in motion with the aim of resolving the contradiction. All human progress is due to 
this fact. If man is to be prevented from reacting to his awareness of contradictions 
by action, the very existence of these contradictions must be denied. To harmonize, 
and thus negate contradictions is the function of rationalizations in individual life 
and of ideologies (socially patterned rationalizations) in social life. However, if man’s 
mind could be satisfied only by rational answers, by the truth, these ideologies would 
remain ineffective. But it is also one of his peculiarities to accept as truth the thoughts 
shared by most of the members of his culture or postulated by powerful authorities. 
If the harmonizing ideologies are supported by consensus or authority, man’s mind is 
appeased although he himself is not entirely set at rest.

13 Man can react to historical contradictions by annulling them through his own 
action; but he cannot annul existential dichotomies, although he can react to them 
in different ways. He can appease his mind by soothing and harmonizing ideologies. 
He can try to escape from his inner restlessness by ceaseless activity in pleasure or 
business. He can try to abrogate his freedom and to turn himself into an instrument 
of powers outside himself, submerging his self in them. But he remains dissatisfied, 
anxious, and restless. There is only one solution to his problem: to face the truth, 
to acknowledge his fundamental aloneness and solitude in a universe indifferent to 
his fate, to recognize that there is no power transcending him which can solve his 
problem for him. Man must accept the responsibility for himself and the fact that only 



by using his own powers can he give meaning to his life. But meaning does not imply 
certainty; indeed, the quest for certainty blocks the search for meaning. Uncertainty 
is the very condition to impel man to unfold his powers. If he faces the truth without 
panic, he will recognize that there is no meaning to life except the meaning man gives 
his life by the unfolding of his powers, by living productively; and that only constant 
vigilance, activity, and effort can keep us from failing in the one task that matters—the 
full development of our powers within the limitations set by the laws of our existence. 
Man will never cease to be perplexed, to wonder, and to raise new questions. Only if 
he recognizes the human situation, the dichotomies inherent in his existence and his 
capacity to unfold his powers, will he be able to succeed in his task: to be himself and 
for himself and to achieve happiness by the full realization of those faculties which are 
peculiarly his—of reason, love, and productive work.

(2,009 words)


Words and Expressions

abrogate /..br.ɡe.t/ vt. to officially end a legal agreement, practice, etc.

annul /..n.l/ vt. to state officially that something is no longer legally valid

anomaly /..n.m.li/ n. something that is noticeable because it is different from 
what is usual

appease /..pi.z/ vt. to make people less angry or stop them from attacking 
you by giving them what they want

consensus /k.n.sens.s/ n. an opinion that everyone in a group agrees with or 
accepts

crowning /.kra.n../ adj. used to describe something that makes something 
complete or perfect, or is the best feature of something

denote /d..n..t/ vt. to mean something; to represent or be a sign of something

dichotomy /da..k.t.mi/ n. the difference between two completely opposite ideas 
or things

disequilibrium /.d.sekw..l.bri.m/ n. a lack of balance in something

disrupt /d.s.r.pt/ vt. to prevent something from continuing in its usual way by 
causing problems 

dynamism /.da.n.m.z.m/ n. energy and determination to succeed

entity /.ent.ti/ n. something that exists apart from other things, having its 
own independent existence

evict /..v.kt/ vt. to tell someone legally that they must leave the house 
they are living in



Discuss the following questions.

1. What is man’s biological weakness?

2. What leads to the development of human qualities according to the author?

3. What is man’s existential dichotomies?

4. What is man’s historical dichotomy?

5. How will man be able to succeed in his task to be himself and for himself and to 
achieve happiness by the full realization of those faculties which are peculiarly 
his—of reason, love, and productive work?

existential /.eɡz..sten..l/ adj. (formal) relating to the existence of humans or to 
existentialism

extraneous /.k.stre.ni.s/ adj. (formal) not belonging to or directly related to a particular 
subject or problem; coming from outside

freak /fri.k/ n. a thing, person, animal, or event that is extremely unusual 
or unlikely, and not like any other of its type; someone 
who is extremely interested in a particular subject so that 
other people think they are strange or unusual

identical /a..dent.k.l/ adj. exactly the same or very similar

impel /.m.pel/ vt. to urge or force (a person) to an action; to cause somebody 
to move forward with force

incompatible /..nk.m.p.t.b.l/ adj. two things that are incompatible cannot exist or be 
accepted together

negate /n..ɡe.t/ vt. (formal) to prevent something from having any effect

perplexed /p..plekst/ adj. confused and worried by something that you do not 
understand

reconcile /.rek.nsa.l/ vt. to make something compatible with, or to bring something 
into consonance or accord

solidarity /.s.l..d.r.ti/ n. loyalty and general agreement between all the people in 
a group, or between different groups, because they all 
have a shared aim 

submerge /s.b.m..d./ vt. to hide ideas, feelings, opinions, etc. completely; to 
cover something completely with water or another liquid

transcend /tr.n.send/ vt. (formal) to go beyond the usual limits of something

visualize /.v..u.la.z/ vt. to form a picture of someone or something in your mind


Exercises



Reflective Work

1. Why should we be critical in our thinking?

2. How do you understand the statement “Man is alone and he is related at the 
same time”?

Intercultural Thinking

Do you think happiness means differently to Chinese and Westerners? If yes, how?

Discussion and Exploration

Further Reading

1

 
Title A Little History of Philosophy

 Summary In this book, there are 40 chapters about some well-known 
philosophers around the world in history. The selected chapter tells us 
stories about Socrates and Plato. In his life, Socrates asks many “awkward 
questions” to reveal how little people know, and the meaning of wisdom. 
Plato writes down a series of conversations, known as the Platonic 
Dialogues, between Socrates and the people he questions. This chapter also 
explains the main idea of Plato’s Theory of Forms, and his The Republic.

2

 
Title Man for Himself

 Summary In this book, the author Erich Fromm asserts that humanistic 
ethics is the applied science of the art of living. He elaborates on his 
insightful interpretations of issues like human nature, personality, 
conscience, pleasure, happiness, faith, moral power and so on. Fromm 
divides human character into two types: the nonproductive orientation 
and the productive orientation. The nonproductive is further categorized 
into the receptive, the exploitative, the hoarding, and the marketing. The 
excerpt is on the productive.



Race and 
Nation

Unit



Introduction

“Nation”, a key term in politics, ethnology, cultural anthropology and other social 
sciences, is closely related to races, ethnic groups, states and countries. “Nation” and 
“state” are two terms interrelated but difficult to distinguish from each other. A nation 
in some ways can be thought of as an imagined community bound together by notions 
of unity that center around religion, ethnic identity, language, cultural practice and so 
forth, while a state is an independent, sovereign government exercising control over a 
certain, spatially defined and bounded area, whose borders are usually clearly defined 
and internationally recognized by other states. A state can exist without a nation, or with 
several nations, among their subjects; a nation can be coterminous with the population 
of one state, or be included together with other nations within one state, or be divided 
into several states. A good understanding of the distinction between these two terms 
can help to better understand such terms as “national”, “nationality”, “nationalism”, and 
“internationalism”, as well as terms like “nation-state” and “modern state”.

1

 “Nation” is used as the root or the basic word in many words and phrases, for 
example, “nationality” and “international”. Can you give more examples? Are there 
any differences in the meaning of “nation” in these words and phrases?

2

 Could the word “States” in “The United States of America” be replaced by “Nations”? 
Why or why not?

3

 Is it necessary for a state or a nation to share a common language?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks


84

综合英语



A

Text

Understand 

States

Nations 

and

Hugh Seton-Watson1

1 The distinction between states and nations is fundamental in our understanding 
of these two concepts. States can exist without a nation, or with several nations, among 
their subjects; and a nation can be coterminous with the population of one state, or be 
included together with other nations within one state, or be divided between several 
states. There were states long before there were nations, and there are some nations 
that are much older than most states which exist today. The belief that every state is 
a nation, or that all sovereign states are national states, has done much to obfuscate 
human understanding of political realities. A state is a legal and political organization, 
with the power to require obedience and loyalty from its citizens. A nation is a 
community of people, whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, a 
common culture, a national consciousness. Yet in the common usage of English and of 
other modern languages these two distinct relationships are frequently confused.

2 In the United States, the expression “throughout the nation” simply means 
“throughout the country”. In the main European languages, the words “international 
relations” and their equivalent are used to denote the relations between states. The 
organization set up at the end of the Second World War with the hope of preventing 
war and promoting peace between states was called “United Nations”, and its 
predecessor had been called “League of Nations”. But membership of both these 


1 Hugh Seton-Watson (1916–1984): a famous anthropologist, historian and politician in London University, U.K. His 
representative work Nations and States: An Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism greatly 
influences the western academic world by discussing the issues of nation, nationalism, theories and realties of 
nation-states.



organizations was confined in fact to governments of states. It was assumed in the 
age of President Woodrow Wilson2 that states would embody nations; that the people 
of every state would form a nation; and that eventually, in the golden age of self-
determination which was dawning, every nation would have its state. There were of 
course in 1918 many such states: the expression “nation-state” in such cases reflected 
a reality. There were, however, many others, some of which became members of the 
League of Nations, of which this was not true. The rhetoric of Wilson was still used 
in the age of Franklin Delano Roosevelt3 (a founding father of the United Nations, 
though he did not live to see it function). Many of the original members, and many 
who later joined it, were nation-states, but many of each category were not. The United 
Nations in fact has proved to be little more than a meeting place for representatives of 
Disunited States. The frequently heard cliché that “we live in an age of nation-states” is 
at most a half-truth. What is arguably true is that we live in an age of sovereign states. 
Many people believe that state sovereignty is a major cause of international tension, 
and a potential cause of future wars; and that steps should be taken to diminish it. It 
is also often asserted that “the age of the nation-state is coming to an end”. The truth 
is less simple; the problems of sovereignty and of nationalism, of states and of nations, 
are not the same. There have been times when the existence of state sovereignty has 
been a cause of war, and others when the aspirations of nations have led to war. There 
have been examples in recent times of diminution of state sovereignty, and it is quite 
possible that there will be a growing trend in this direction. But the disappearance of 
state sovereignties has not caused the disappearance of nations, any more than the 
creation of new state sovereignties has sufficed to create new nations. Whether nations 
can be destroyed is a subject for dispute.

3 Even more confusion commonly attaches to the word “nationalism”. It is often 
used to denote any form of collective selfishness or aggressiveness of which the 
writer or speaker disapproves. It has become a pejorative term, used in contrast to the 
respectable word “patriotism”. In fact, “I am a patriot: you are a nationalist.”

4 Governments are often said to have “nationalist” policies if they pursue their own 
interests at the expense of other governments. “Economic nationalism” is the pursuit 
of the supposed economic interests of the people of one country, without regard for 
those of other peoples in other countries. Yet selfish regard for their own interests 

2 Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924): the 28th U.S. President, served in office from 1913 to 1921 and led America through 
the First World War. He spent the last months of his presidency fighting to create a league of nations that would 
prevent future wars.

3 Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945): the 32nd President of the United States. He served through the Great 
Depression and the Second World War. He spearheaded the successful wartime alliance among Britain, the Soviet 
Union and the United States and helped lay the groundwork for the post-war peace organization that would 
become the United Nations.



has been a feature of the policies of countless governments throughout history, long 
before nationalism or nations were heard of. Another misuse of the words “national” 
and “nationalism” relates to the collectivist policies of the governments of states. In the 
course of the last half-century, governments, whether as a result of military or financial 
pressures or of the ideological convictions of their politicians, have intervened more 
and more in the economic activities and private lives of their citizens, have mobilized 
more and more their persons and their possessions. This trend was described in the 
French language by the useful word “étatisme”, which has no satisfactory equivalent 
in English. Seizure of property or of business enterprises by the state (étatisation) has 
been misleadingly rendered in English as “nationalisation”. It is misleading because 
the seized properties are in reality placed at the disposal not of the nation but of a 
dominant bureaucratic caste. This book4 is concerned with nations and states, and 
only to a lesser extent with nationalism. Nevertheless, the word and the phenomenon 
of “nationalism” will frequently occur in the following pages, and it is necessary at the 
outset at least to give some indication of what I mean by it.

5 As I see it, the word “nationalism” has two basic meanings. It would greatly 
improve the clarity of individual and public thinking if the word could be shorn of all 
accretion, and confined to these two. One of these meanings is a doctrine about the 
character, interests, rights and duties of nations. The second meaning is an organized 
political movement designed to further the alleged aims and interests of nations. The 
two most generally sought aims of such movements have been independence (the 
creation of a sovereign state in which the nation is dominant), and national unity (the 
incorporation within the frontiers of this state of all groups which are considered, by 
themselves, or by those who claim to speak for them, to belong to the nation). In the 
case of many, though not of all, nations there has been a further task for nationalists: 
to build a nation within an independent state, by extending down to the population as 
a whole the belief in the existence of the nation, which, before independence was won, 
was held only by a minority.

6 All that has been said above assumes the use of the word “nation”, and this is much 
more difficult to explain. Many attempts have been made to define nations, and none 
have been successful. The most widely known without doubt is that of the late Joseph 
Stalin5, whose work Marxism and the National Question6, based on an article which 

4 This book: here refers to Nations and States: An Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism by 
Hugh Seton-Watson.

5 Joseph Stalin (1878–1953): the leader of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) from 1929 to 1953. Under 
his rule, the Soviet Union was transformed from an agricultural society into an industrial and military superpower.

6 Marxism and the National Question: a short work of Marxist theory written by Joseph Stalin in January 1913 while 
living in Vienna.



he wrote at the request of Lenin7 in 1913, was later diffused in scores of languages. 
All that Stalin could say was that a nation must have four characteristics: a common 
language, a common territory, a common economic life and a common mental make-
up. No group which did not possess all four was entitled to be considered a nation. The 
fourth of these characteristics is of course vague. One may indeed strongly argue that 
vagueness is inherent in the phenomenon itself. But that is not an argument used by 
Stalin; on the contrary, he seems to have believed, and it was certainly claimed on his 
behalf by his disciples, that his four points provided a fully scientific definition. Stalin 
mentioned neither religion nor historical tradition. The truth is that Stalin’s article was 
written not as a piece of social-political analysis, but as a polemic—arising out of the 
conditions of 1913, against the Jewish socialist movement8, the Bund9—intended to 
prove that the Jews were not a nation.

7 Most definitions have in fact been designed to prove that, in contrast to the 
community to which the definer belonged, some other group was not entitled to be 
called a nation. The distinction between “cultural nation” (a community united by 
language or religion or historical mythology or other cultural bonds) and “political 
nation” (a community which in addition to cultural bonds also possesses a legal state 
structure) has at times been useful, but it too has often been misused for the purpose 
noted above.

8 In the 19th century Central Europe, a distinction was made between “nations” 
and “nationalities”, the former being the superior category. “My community is a nation: 
yours is a nationality.” Whole theories were based on this distinction, the purpose of 
which was to deny the status of nation to others. In later chapters I shall discuss the 
distinction at greater length. Apart from the sense mentioned, the word “nationality” 
has, in the English language (more frequently in its British than in its American 
variant), the meaning of “state citizenship”. When I have occasion, in the following 
pages, to refer to this legal category, I shall use the unambiguous word “citizenship”. 
There is, however, a third sense in which “nationality” can be used: as a neutral and 
abstract word, meaning the quality of belonging to a nation. This is at times a useful 
concept, and it is the only sense in which I shall use it, without quotation marks, in the 
following pages.

(1,551 words)


7 Lenin (1870–1924): a Russian communist revolutionary and head of the Bolshevik Party who rose to prominence 
during the Russian Revolution of 1917, one of the most explosive political events of the twentieth century.

8 Jewish socialist movement: the organized efforts of Jews to build their own political parties or otherwise represent 
their interest in politics outside the Jewish community.

9 the Bund: in the text refers to the Jewish Labour Bund, a secular Jewish socialist party in the Russian Empire, active 
between 1897 and 1920.



accretion /..kri...n/ n. a layer of a substance which slowly forms on something

alleged /..led.d/ adj. (a crime, fact, etc.) that someone says has happened or 
is true, although it has not been proved

bureaucratic /.bj.r..kr.t.k/ adj. involving a lot of complicated official rules and processes

cliché /.kli..e./ n. an idea or phrase that has been used so much that it is 
not effective or does not have any meaning any longer

collectivist /k..lekt.v.st/ adj. relating to the political system in which all businesses, 
farms, etc. are owned by the government

conviction /k.n.v.k..n/ n. a very strong belief or opinion

diffuse /d..fju.z/ vi. & vt. to spread ideas or information among a lot of people, or 
to spread like this

diminish /d..m.n../ vi. & vt. to become or make something become smaller or less

diminution /.d.m..nu...n/ n. a reduction in the size, number, or amount of something

equivalent /..kw.v.l.nt/ adj. having the same value, purpose, job, etc. as a person or 
thing of a different kind

fundamental /.f.nd..mentl/ adj. relating to the most basic and important parts of 
something; very necessary and important

ideological /.a.di..l.d..k.l/ adj. based on strong beliefs or ideas, especially political or 
economic ideas

incorporation /.n.k..p..re...n/ n. inclusion of something as part of a group, system, plan, 
etc.

intervene /..nt..vi.n/ vi. to become involved in an argument, fight, or other 
difficult situation in order to change what happens

obedience /..bi.di.ns/ n. when someone does what they are told to do, or what a 
law, rule, etc. says they must do

obfuscate /..bf.ske.t/ vt. to deliberately make something unclear or difficult to 
understand

patriotism /.p.tri.t.z.m/ n. great love of your country

pejorative /p..d..r.t.v/ adj. a word or expression that is pejorative is used to show 
disapproval or to insult someone

polemic /p..lem.k/ n. a written or spoken statement that strongly criticizes or 
defends a particular idea, opinion, or person

predecessor /.pri.d.ses./ n. a machine, system, etc. that existed before another one 
in a process of development

seizure /.si.../ n. the act of suddenly taking control of something, 
especially by force

self-determination n. the right of the people of a particular country to govern 
themselves and to choose the type of government they 


Words and Expressions

/self-d..t..m..ne...n/



will have

sovereign /.s.vr.n/ adj. (a country or state) independent and governed by itself

unambiguous /..n.m.b.ɡju.s/ adj. (a statement, instruction, etc.) having or exhibiting a 
single clearly defined meaning

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. The four dimensions in Stalin’s definition of nation sometimes do not work for 
the related researches.

b. “State” and “nation” are two different but related concepts that help us to form 
a basic understanding of the country we live in and its people.

c. The concept of state is much older than that of nation.

d. There are many differences in the national realities of the U.S. and the U.K.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. A nation is a legal and political organization, with the power to 
require obedience and loyalty from its citizens.

2. Patriotism is given more positive meanings than nationalism.

3. It’s a task for all nationalists to build a nation within an independent 
state.

4. Joseph Stalin failed to provide an accurate definition of a nation.

5. The author refers to the meaning of “the quality of belonging to 
a nation” when he uses “nationality” in the following part of his 
book.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. What are the two basic meanings of “nationalism”?

2. Could you give an example of a nation which is coterminous with the 


Exercises

T F



population of one state, or included together with other nations within one 
state, or divided among several states?

3. According to the author, what was the real reason Joseph Stalin came up with 
the four characteristics of a nation?

4. What are the three different ways in which people use the term “nationality” at 
the end of the text?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. There were, however, many others, some of which became members of the 
League of Nations, of which this was not true. (Para. 2)

2. But the disappearance of state sovereignties has not caused the disappearance of 
nations, any more than the creation of new state sovereignties has sufficed to 
create new nations. (Para. 2)

3. It has become a pejorative term, used in contrast to the respectable word 
“patriotism”. (Para. 3)

4. It would greatly improve the clarity of individual and public thinking if the 
word could be shorn of all accretion, and confined to these two. (Para. 5)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. The author seems to believe that the word “nationalism” has become a 
pejorative term. List some examples to support his view.

2. Do you think Joseph Stalin’s definition of “nation” a plausible one? Why or 
why not?

3. The author mentions three different ways in which people use the term 
“nationality” in the last paragraph of the text. Compare and analyze the 
different perspectives that lead to the three ways of using it.

4. Members in the Unite Nations are officially called “Member States” in English, 
not “Member Nations”. Can you give reasons for it?



Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

dominant variant ambiguous sovereign diminish
cliché predecessor obedience ideological intervene

1. It’s been repeated so often that it’s become a(n) ________________, but I still want 
to pin down the facts.

2. Federalism is intended to ________________ the power of the central state.

3. Public-opinion polls in Latin America show far higher approval ratings for 
President Obama than those of his ________________, George W. Bush.

4. We are committed to seeing an Iraq that is ________________, stable and self-
reliant, and fully integrated in the region.

5. He is obedient to God in a way that no one has been up to this point in the 
narrative, but perhaps ultimately the model of blind ________________ is rejected, 
too.

6. Asia will be and will continue to be the ________________ force in medical 
tourism.

7. We can really cut our health care burden enormously if we pay attention and 
________________ early.

8. Officials admit that this is a(n) ________________ project, but so are all education 
curricula, they say.

9. So selection for one ________________ can have all sorts of seemingly unrelated 
effects.

10. Another issue is that natural language is often very ________________.

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

be confined to at the outset be coterminous with at length suffice to
in the age of be shorn of at the expense of set up regard for

1. The tomboy’s popularity ________________ a specific demographic: middle and 
upper-class white women.

2. In an audio-only briefing, the secretary said the president brought up the issue 



________________, and said the pair had a robust and lengthy discussion.

3. Englishness is a less assertive national identity than Scottishness, perhaps 
because it is much more confident: for many English people their identity 
________________ Britishness, in spite of all its complicated associations with post-
imperial decline and present anxiety about European integration.

4. We are going to talk about this ________________ in a future episode so please get 
at us.

5. The prior decision and the reasons given for that decision will not ________________ 
determine whether the request should be granted.

6. He accused the EPA chief of engaging in a “sham process” to protect coal-
industry profits ________________ public health.

7. He loved his wife, and she loved him, but her illness had no ________________ 
love.

8. ________________ social media, there is an elevated emphasis on so-called “likes”. 
Novelist and creative writing teacher Charmaine Craig sees a disturbing trend.

9. If you are a 7-day print subscriber, unlimited digital access is included in your 
subscription and you simply need to ________________ an online account.

10. There are two common but partly misguided notions concerning metaphor 
in science. The first is to view metaphor as a nonessential part of scientific 
understanding—often implying that the sooner scientific knowledge 
________________ metaphor, the better. But many studies of science demonstrate 
otherwise.

 II. Choose the right phrase in brackets to complete each sentence.

1. Specifically, specialists are more likely to ________________ (come to; come out) 
similar decisions about a certain case than non-specialists considering the same 
case.

2. ________________ (In contrast of; In contrast to) other procedural rules, however, 
it is not particularly difficult for courts in one jurisdiction to identify and apply 
the statute of limitations of another.

3. It seems to go in direct contradiction to everything he stood for ________________ 
(in the course of; in the course in) the campaign.

4. Typically we are ________________(concerned with; concerned in) relations that 
may provide evidence for the truth of one statement given another.

5. The UN Security Council is set to meet on Tuesday________________ (at the 
request of; in the request of) the United States, Japan, and South Korea.



C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. But the disappearance of state sovereignties has not caused the disappearance of 
nations, any more than the creation of new state sovereignties has sufficed to 
create new nations. Whether nations can be destroyed is a subject for dispute.

2. Even more confusion commonly attaches to the word “nationalism”. It is often 
used to denote any form of collective selfishness or aggressiveness of which the 
writer or speaker disapproves. It has become a pejorative term, used in contrast 
to the respectable word “patriotism”.

3. All that Stalin could say was that a nation must have four characteristics: 
a common language, a common territory, a common economic life and a 
common mental make-up. No group which did not possess all four was entitled 
to be considered a nation.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or phrases 
given in brackets.

1. 应联合国秘书长的要求，三方会谈将在12月中旬举行。（at the request of）

2. 中国各民族团结一心，坚如磐石。（solidarity）

3. 他有权保持沉默，并且可以要求请律师。（be entitled to）

4. 相对于传统的授课方式，我们的教学方法更加包容，能够让学生通过多种方式来学
习。（in contrast to）

5. 如果社会陷入混乱而政府无力控制，军队就一定会干预。（intervene）

6. 民族之间的融合与交流，有利于传播思想、创造新思想。（diffuse）

7. 他的行为体现了他坚定的信念，那就是全民族团结一心才能赢得自决权。（embody）

8. 他始终坚信，这些措施的实施将有助于减少经济风险，使公司平稳渡过危机。
（diminish）

D

 Writing

In the United States of America, there are different ethnic groups. Please refer to 
what you have learned about ethnicity and Text A in this unit, and write an essay to 
demonstrate the relationship of “ethnic groups”, “nation” and “state” in the U.S.A. You 
should write no less than 300 words.



1 More than 300 years ago, the Torghut tribe, an ancient people, undertook a 
journey that would lead them back to China, the country they had left more than a 
century before. Cui Jia and Mao Weihua report from the Beyinguoleng Mongolian 
Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

2 Standing outside his yurt, holding his horse by the reins, Dilai watched the buses 
that carried tourists to the rich, vast Bayinbuluke, or “fertile water”, grassland in 
Heijing County.

3 “They all come here to take photos of the river, which twists and turns nine times 
as it meanders through the grassland. For us, though, this is home, the place our 
ancestors fought hard for,” said the 47-year-old member of the Torghut, a legendary 
ancient Mongolian clan that claims royal descent.

4 Tourists rarely stop at the Tibetan Buddhist temple near the scenic spot 
surrounded by snowcapped mountains, but for the locals, the site is sacred.

5 “In there (the temple), we pray for good health and pay our respects to our great 
ancestors who brought our clan back to China. You wouldn’t be talking to me here 
today if they hadn’t risked their lives to do so,” Dilai said.

6 His name, the Mongolian word for “victory”, was given to him by his father in 
memory of Ubashi, a Torghut hero who played a crucial role in the tribe’s history more 
than 300 years ago. Dilai, who was introduced to the story at age 4 and remembers it 
perfectly, said no people should ever forget its history.


B

Text

Clan That Came Back 

The

to Its Roots

Cui Jia and Mao Weihua



Departure and return

7 The nomadic Torghut originally lived near what is now Tacheng, a city and 
prefecture to the northwest of Bayinbuluke. In the early 1600s, the population 
grew rapidly, resulting in territorial clashes as the Torghut fought for control of the 
grassland. Eventually, to avoid conflict and discover better pastures, the clan decided 
to move west to the banks of the Volga River in Russia.

8 In 1761, 19-year-old Ubashi became the Torghut Khan, or king. It was a time of 
turmoil: The Russian government was forcing the Torghut to renounce Buddhism and 
convert to the Orthodox Church and to adopt Russian-style clothing. The young men 
were press-ganged into service in the Russian army.

9 Ubashi began planning to lead his people back to China. According to the clan’s 
historical records, Ubashi told the elders, “Our people and children should never be 
slaves, so let us head back to where the sun rises.”

10 In January 1771, 169,000 Torghut people crossed the frozen river and set out for 
China. By the time the group arrived eight months later, the number had dwindled to 
62,137—some had set up new settlements along the way, but others were either killed 
by Russian army units or succumbed to the hostile environment.

11 Ubashi was treated like a hero by the Emperor Qianlong (1711–1799) of the Qing 
Dynasty, who allocated different areas of grassland to the dozens of families that made 
up the clan. Ubashi’s extended family was given Bayinbuluke, but he died at age 33. 
The location of his tomb is unknown.

“Living history book”

12 “We (the Torghut people) learned about the importance of having a peaceful and 
strong homeland the hard way,” Ouqierala said. He is the clan’s “living history book” 
and records all the family trees so members can trace their lineage back through the 
centuries.

13 The 73-year-old historian is saddened that some young Torghut find it difficult 
to read family trees in Mongolian, and that many are unable to communicate with 
their grandparents in their native tongue. They attend schools where Mandarin is the 
main language, and even though special Mongolian classes are provided, few Torghut 
students learn the language, he said.

14 “Of course, learning Mandarin is very important because the Torghut people are 
Chinese too. At the same time, the young people need to be given more Mongolian 



lessons at school so they don’t lose their identities,” he said.

15 More than 40,000 Torghut live in Beyinguoleng—most maintain the nomadic 
lifestyles of their ancestors—but other groups exist outside of the area.

16 The descendants of those who stayed in Russia are known as the Kalmyks and 
inhabit the Republic of Kalmykia, the only region in Europe where the majority of the 
population practices Tibetan Buddhism.

17 “I’ve met Torghut people from Kalmykia who came to Bayinbuluke to try and 
find long-lost relatives and to see what our lives are like. Some are sponsored by the 
government. I don’t see them as foreigners, but as members of the family,” Ouqierala 
said.

18 Danbai, 57, is a 13th-generation Torghut. He runs a museum in the county seat of 
Hejing that relates the story of the Torghuts’ return to China. “We always think about 
our brothers and sisters who were left behind. I’ve been in contact with some of their 
descendants,” he said.

19 Unlike his ancestors, who were heavily influenced by Russian culture when they 
returned to China, Danbai has no idea how to use the knife and fork on display in the 
museum.

20 However, he’s delighted that one part of the Russian heritage his ancestors brought 
back is still thriving. “The black-headed sheep we have are unique in Xinjiang because 
they are actually Russian,” he said.

Swan sanctuary

21 In 1997, Bayinbuluke was designated as a nature reserve for swans. Every April, 
large numbers of the birds arrive to feed and recuperate on the grassland’s rivers, 
which remain unfrozen even in the depths of winter.

22 As a child, Dilai grazed sheep on the riverbank. His favorite pastime was to watch 
the reflection of the setting sun as it gradually appeared in each turn of the river, until 
nine suns appeared, one after another. Now, grazing is prohibited near the river and 
Dilai can only view the scenery from a specially built wooden platform, like a tourist.

23 He doesn’t object to the changes, though, because he receives ample compensation 
and understands that the moves are intended to secure Bayinbuluke’s future.

24 As a part of the Tian Shan Mountain Range, which was listed as a UNESCO 
World Heritage Site in 2013, the grassland attracts a large number of tourists. As 



a herder and businessman, Dilai knows he has to seize every opportunity to make 
money.

25 Along with 17 other families, he runs a yurt complex that provides visitors with 
traditional Mongolian delicacies and accommodations. Between May and October, he 
rents horses on the summer pasture. “We graze tourists and sheep at the same time. It’s 
very efficient,” he said, with a big grin.

26 The complex often receives more than 200 visitors a day, and the locals dress in 
traditional costume to serve refreshments and explain the differences between Kazak 
and Mongolian yurts.

27 The growing number of tourists has also had unpleasant repercussions. “We 
Mongolians see the grassland as the most precious thing in the world, so we never 
litter. It really hurts to see tourists throwing rubbish everywhere,” Dilai said.

Winter pastures

28 When winter comes and the tourists have gone, Dilai dismantles the yurts and 
moves his 800 sheep to the winter pastures, resuming his life as a herder. Before 
leaving, he scatters a handful of seeds over the large, brown spots on the grassland 
caused by the yurts to encourage the grass to grow back.

29 Winter is tough on the grassland, where temperatures can plummet to –42 ℃ and 
predators are always near. “In recent winters, we’ve seen an increase in the number of 
attacks by wolves and snow leopards. We don’t know if it’s a good thing or bad thing 
for the grassland.”

30 Last year, three families near his winter pasture lost a combined 900 sheep to 
wolves in one night, but they could do nothing about it because both wolves and snow 
leopards are protected species, he said.

31 Dilai has two sons, one age 16 and the other 19. The older boy is studying at the 
Xinjiang Agricultural University in Urumqi, the regional capital. Dilai wants one of the 
boys to find a good job in a city and the other to stay on the grassland like a traditional 
Torghut.

32 All the Torghut families have government-funded settlement houses, and the 
children and elderly stay in them during the winter while the young men take turns to 
care for the livestock on the grassland.

33 “We enjoy the convenience of a city-type lifestyle on the grassland. I wish our 
ancestors could see us,” Dilai said.



34 Every evening in summer, the locals perform a show for tourists in a newly built 
theater shaped like a giant yurt, telling the story of the Torghut people’s return to 
China. Dilai has attended many times because he is proud of the tribe’s history.

35 “I hope the show will help people understand how Xinjiang and Bayinbuluke 
became our home, and they will see more than just the beautiful scenery,” he said.

(1,462 words)


Words and Expressions

accommodation /..k.m..de...n/ n. a place for someone to stay, live, or work

ample /..mp.l/ adj. more than enough

autonomous /...t.n.m.s/ adj. an autonomous place or organization is free to govern or 
control itself

convert /k.n.v..t/ vt. to change to a different religion

descent /d..sent/ n. one’s family origins, especially his/her nationality or 
relationship to someone important who lived a long time 
ago

dismantle /d.s.m.ntl/ vt. to take a machine or piece of equipment apart so that it 
is in separate pieces

fertile /.f..ta.l/ adj. (land or soil) able to produce good crops; able to produce 
babies, young animals, or new plants

graze /ɡre.z/ vt. & vi. to feed as in a meadow or pasture; to let feed in a field 
or pasture or meadow

herder /.h..d./ n. a person who manages, breeds, or tends to livestock

hostile /.h.sta.l/ adj. used to describe conditions that are difficult to live in, or 
that make it difficult to achieve something

leopard /.lep.d/ n. a large animal of the cat family, with yellow fur and black 
spots, which lives in Africa and South Asia

meander /mi..nd./ vi. to move or cause to move in a sinuous, spiral, or circular 
course

nomadic /n...m.d.k/ adj. (of groups of people) tending to travel and change 
settlements frequently

pasture /.pɑ.st../ n. land or a field that is covered with grass and is used for 
cattle, sheep, etc. to feed on

plummet /.pl.m.t/ vi. to suddenly and quickly decrease in value or amount

predator /.pred.t./ n. an animal that kills and eats other animals

relate /r..le.t/ vt. & vi. to tell someone about events that have happened to you 
or to someone else



Discuss the following questions.

1. Why did Ubashi plan to lead his people back to China?

2. What difficulties did the Torghut tribe face and conquer on their way back to 
where the sun rises in the 18th century?

3. What language do the Torghut people prefer, Mandarin or their own language?

4. The Torghut people seem to be struggling between making money and 
protecting their natural environment. Can you give some examples from the 
text? How do you think they could draw a balance between economic profits 
and environmental protection?

Reflective Work

1. What are the basic usages of the word “nation”?

renounce /r..na.ns/ vt. to publicly say or show that you no longer believe in 
something, or will no longer behave in a particular way

repercussion /.ri.p..k...n/ n. the effects of an action or event, especially bad effects 
that continue for some time

sacred /.se.kr.d/ adj. relating to a god or religion; believed to be holy; very 
important or greatly respected

sadden /.s.dn/ vt. to make someone feel sad

sponsor /.sp.ns./ vt. to support someone by paying for their training, 
education, living costs, etc.

succumb /s..k.m/ vi. to stop opposing someone or something that is stronger 
than you, and allow them to take control

turmoil /.t..m..l/ n. a state of confusion, excitement, or anxiety

yurt /j..t/ n. a round tent used by nomads in central Asia


Exercises

Discussion and Exploration



2. Summarize what you have learned from this unit about the relationship between 
“nation” and “state”.

Intercultural Thinking

1. In the Hebrew myth, Moses liberated the Israelites from Egyptian bondage. 
When the Israelites reached the Red Sea, the waters miraculously parted to let 
them cross. The Egyptian army tried to pursue them, but the waters closed and 
the Egyptian soldiers drowned. Please compare and contrast Exodus and the 
Torghut’s return via a Venn diagram.

2. How do you think a nation could maintain its unique culture within a state that 
consists of multiple nations? Find some examples to illustrate your opinion.

Further Reading

1

 
Title Nation State System: Definition and Historical 

 Background

 Summary This article provides definitions to the terms of “nation”, 
“state”, and “nation state system”, and presents a survey of the history, 
background, origin or evaluation of nation state system of Europe since 
the 17th century, from the Treaty of Westphalia signed in 1648 to the 
present. It also gives a brief introduction to modern state system and the 
nation state system in the 20th century.

2

 
Title Jews and Israel, Nation and State

 Summary Knesset members approved a controversial and long-debated 
law that officially defines Israel as the Jewish nation-state. The law for the 
first time enshrines Israel as “the national home of the Jewish people”. The 
law becomes one of the so-called Basic Laws, which, like a constitution, 
guide Israel’s legal system. Opponents are worried that the reservation of 
the right to national self-determination in Israel only to the Jewish people 
may put the country’s sizable Arab minority at a disadvantage.



Society

Unit



Introduction

Introduction

Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the 
world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in 
goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. Since 
ancient times, humans have sought distant places to settle, produce, and exchange 
goods enabled by improvements in technology and transportation. After centuries of 
technological progress and advances in international cooperation, the world is more 
connected than ever.

1

 How is your life in China related with other countries?

2

 How much do you know about globalization?

3

 Can you give some examples of globalization?

4

 Is globalization good or bad for you?

Pre-reading Tasks

103

Unit

Society



A

Text

How to Understand

the Concept of 

Globalization

 Globalization is a trend that all countries and people are faced with and involved 
in. Different countries have different reactions to and strategies for globalization, behind 
which are considerations of their own interests. The following article, co-authored 
by American intellectuals, provides some basic knowledge about globalization while 
revealing the nature of the globalization from the American perspective.

1 Globalization has been invoked to explain everything. Yet defining this 
ubiquitous term is more difficult than one might expect. Broadly, it has to do with the 
increased global interconnectedness of people and economies, but there are at least 
five distinct ways in which it is commonly understood. Likewise, it has a broad range 
of effects on: the world and local economies, politics, culture, the environment, and, 
perhaps most tellingly, the daily lives of almost everyone, no matter where they are in 
the world.

Understanding the definitions

2 Know that there is no one definition. Globalization encompasses so many aspects 
of our modern life, from communications to trade to culture to foreign policy, that 
it can be hard to pin down what precisely the term means. As Simon Reich argues, 
“Despite the breadth of the term’s application, the meaning of ‘globalization’ remains 
so elusive as to defy definition.” There are five primary ways in which “globalization” 
can be understood:



● A historical period;

 ● An economic phenomenon;

 ● The spread of values;

 ● A social and technological revolution;

 ● The annihilation of distance.

3 Think of globalization as a historical period. Globalization can be understood as a 
period running from approximately 1970 to the present, following the era of the Cold 
War, which in turn followed what has often been dubbed the Age of Extremes (1870–
1945). This periodization is defined by either:

 ● Structural shifts—The end of the social contract that linked labor representation, 
productivity, and wages within a mass production system of manufacturing.

 ● A conjunction of more temporary factors—The oil crisis of the late 1970s, 
a GNP decline and inflation in the 1980s, and the elections of Margaret Thatcher, 
Ronald Reagan1, and Helmut Kohl2.

4 Define globalization as primarily an economic phenomenon. This definition sees 
globalization as the latest—and by far the most far-reaching and rapid—in a series 
of similar events that have created a greater worldwide spread of sales, production 
facilities, and manufacturing processes, and thus increased linkages between 
economies around the world. The characteristics of economic globalization include:

 ● Liberalization and deregulation of markets;

 ● Privatization of assets;

 ● Retreat of state intervention in the economy;

 ● Diffusion of technology;

 ● Spread of manufacturing across nations;

 ● Integration of capital markets—settings where foreign currencies, stocks, bonds, 
and bank loans are traded (e.g. the New York Stock Exchange).

5 See globalization as the spread and dominance of certain values. This definition 
conceives of globalization as a global convergence of politics, economic practices, 
and culture around a specific version of democracy, capitalism, and “commercial 
secularism”, in which consumption of goods and culture (film, music, restaurants, etc.) 
takes the place of religion or other cultural traditions. The result is a world that—at least 
in major cities—feels increasingly similar no matter where you are.


1 Ronald Reagan: an American politician who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 
and became a highly influential voice of modern conservatism.

2 Helmut Kohl: a German statesman who served as Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998.



6 Understand globalization as a social revolution born of technological change. This 
revolution is creating a new economy in which the globe is a single market and a new 
social order in which people take part in a global culture and economy that is more 
open and flexible. It is typified by:

 ● Globally integrated production;

 ● Specialized but interdependent labor markets;

 ● The privatization of state assets;

 ● New technological linkages (phones, the Internet, online markets) that transcend 
national borders.

7 Define globalization as a long-term change in the experience of space and 
distance. If you have ever boarded a plane (in say New York), landed hours later in 
another city, and been disoriented by the sudden shift, then you have experienced 
this form of globalization. The experience of space, it is argued, is intimately tied to 
the time necessary to connect distinct locations. Planes, cell phones, and the Internet 
have combined to dramatically shrink that time, resulting in a fundamentally different 
human experience of space typified by:

 ● Increased interconnectedness that leads distant events to have local impacts;

 ● The transcendence of local and national boundaries;

 ● The increased speed of social activity mediated by technology.

Considering the causes of globalization

8 Think about how technology has enabled globalization. There have been 
international market integration and widespread cultural exchange in the past—
most notably at the turn of the 20th century. Much of what is different about current 
globalization can be traced to the following technological changes:

 ● The Internet has internationalized capital markets.

 ● Containerized shipping—the use of containers that are easily transferred from 
ship to truck or train—has dramatically reduced the cost of shipping goods.

 ● Real-time communications (via phone and Internet) have allowed for the export 
of service jobs (e.g. call centers), easier cultural diffusion, and social and economic 
connections across national boundaries.

 ● Worldwide access to news via networks and the Internet has spread both 
political ideas and increased consumer knowledge.

9 Know the policy initiatives that have contributed to globalization. While 
technology has clearly played a key role in increased government integration, it is 
not the sole factor. Governments have the ability to limit globalization by setting up 



tariffs, restricting direct foreign investment, and limiting the flow of workers between 
countries. The rapid pace of globalization is largely due to the general embrace of 
policies—aimed at achieving a macroeconomic benefit—that do just the opposite:

 ● Allowing more direct foreign investment;

 ● Lowering or removing tariffs;

 ● Allowing foreign access to capital markets.

10 Consider how historical events have spurred globalization. Technological change, 
and even more so, economic liberalization, have occurred against the backdrop 
of historical events that helped to open new borders to the flows of goods and 
information and to make politicians more open to reducing tariffs. These include:

 ● The fall of the Soviet Bloc—The fall of the Soviet Bloc at just the time that 
communications technology was really taking off allowed for the opening up and 
integration of many previously isolated markets.

 ● The 1973 oil embargo—In response to U.S. aid for Israel during the Yom Kippur 
War3, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries4 imposed an oil 
embargo that caused prices to rocket and strained western economies.

 ● Stagflation—Declining GNP and rising inflation—partially related to the 
oil embargo—led to a desire for political solutions that took the form of market 
liberalization under Thatcher and Reagan, paving the way for globalization.

Knowing the impacts of globalization

11 Understand the macroeconomic impacts. At the level of global and national 
economics, globalization has produced significant changes that reflect a more 
integrated world economy.

 ● World trade rates (the ratio of world imports to gross world products) have 
grown from 7% in 1938, to 10% in 1970, to 18% in 1996, to almost 25% in 2013.

 ● Foreign direct investment in developing countries has gone from $2.2 billion in 
1970 to $154 billion in 1997 to $778 billion in 2013.

 ● The foreign exchange market has grown from $1 trillion per day in 1992 to over 
$3.5 trillion per day in 2014.

12 Consider globalization’s impact on income inequality. Globalization has been 
shown to increase income inequality in developed nations, where the owners of capital 

3 the Yom Kippur War: also known as October War or the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, was a war fought from 6 to 25 
October 1973, by a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria against Israel.

4 Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries: also known as OAPEC, is a regional Arab organization of an 
international character specialized in the affairs of oil.



invested abroad take in huge profits, while workers find their wages depressed by 
competition with foreign workers. For instance, the owner of a call center might see 
huge profits by outsourcing to India, but workers in U.S. call centers will lose jobs or 
see their wages depressed. On the other hand, globalization has decreased income 
inequality in the developing world, resulting in overall less inequality in the world.

13 Think of globalization’s impact on culture. Many fear that globalization is causing 
the Americanization of the rest of the world through the spread of American brands 
(Nike, McDonalds, Gap) and culture (Hollywood films and American TV). However, 
recent studies indicate that American influence is actually on the wane. The Internet 
has empowered localities to create distinct “civilization clusters”, while emerging new 
media (the Internet, satellite television) have fueled local media production more than 
they have borrowed from America.

14 Be aware of globalization’s environmental impact. Globalization has accelerated 
environmental degradation by encouraging rapid industrialization and resource 
extraction in the developing world, as well as increasingly intensive energy use in the 
developed world. Major impacts include:

 ● Green-house gas emissions rose 60% from 1970 to 2004.

 ● The extinction or massive reduction of many animal and plant populations. 22% 
of the world’s mammals are threatened with extinction, 31% of amphibians, and 35% 
of birds.

 ● Deforestation has accelerated in order to create farmland used to grow export 
crops. Between 1990 and 2005, the world lost 3% of its forests.

Seeing globalization in your life

15 Look at your network of relationships. Globalization is partly defined by the 
interaction of people across the globe. How many people do you know that are from 
another country, or who have lived or traveled in one? How many people do you know 
who live in foreign countries now or frequently travel to one for work? How many of 
those people do you stay in touch with via email or the phone?

16 Take a close look at the things you own. Walk around your home, and everywhere 
you look you will likely see the result of the global flow of goods. Your IKEA5 couch 
might be designed in Sweden and produced in China. Your Samsung TV might have 
been designed in South Korea and assembled in Malaysia. Your clothes likely hail from 
all over the world: Sri Lanka, Mexico, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and a dozen of 

5 IKEA: a Dutch-based Swedish multinational group that designs and sells ready-to-assemble furniture, kitchen 
appliances and home accessories.



other countries. Your refrigerator, which might be made in Hungary or South Africa, 
probably contains foods produced around the world.

17 Notice the flow of entertainment across national borders. If you live outside the 
U.S., chances are you have watched Hollywood movies and seen TV shows popular 
in the States. But the flow goes the other way, too. Downton Abbey6, one of the most 
popular shows in the U.S., is from England. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo7 came 
from Sweden. Games from England’s Premier League average over 400,000 viewers in 
the United States.

(1,717 words)

annihilation /..na...le...n/ n. destruction by annihilating something; total destruction

conjunction /k.n.d...k..n/ n. something that joins or connects; the act of linking 
things together; a mechanical system of rods or springs 
or pivots that transmits power or motion

consumption /k.n.s.mp..n/ n. the act of buying and using products

degradation /.deɡr..de...n/ n. changing to a lower state (a less respected state); a low 
or downcast state

deregulation /.di..reɡju.le...n/ n. the act of freeing from regulation (especially from 
governmental regulations)

disorient /d.s...r..nt/ vt. to cause to be lost or disoriented

dominance /.d.m.n.ns/ n. the power or right to give orders or make decisions; 
superior development of one side of the body

dub /d.b/ vt. to give a nickname to; to provide (movies) with a soundtrack 
of a foreign language; to raise (someone) to knighthood

encompass /.n.k.mp.s/ vt. to surround and have or hold something within

elusive /..lu.s.v/ adj. difficult to describe or understand; difficult to find or not 
often seen

embargo /.m.bɑ.ɡ../ n. a government order imposing a trade barrier

emission /..m...n/ n. the act of emitting; the occurrence of a flow of water (as 
from a pipe)


Words and Expressions

6 Downton Abbey: the award-winning series from Julian Fellowes, spans 12 years of gripping drama centered on a 
great English estate on the cusp of a vanishing way of life.

7 The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo: the English-language adaptation of the Swedish novel by Stieg Larsson, and a 
provocative noir thriller.



invoke /.n.v..k/ vt. to request earnestly (something from somebody); to 
summon into action or bring into existence, often as if 
by magic

integrate /..nt.ɡre.t/ vt. to combine two or more things so that they work 
together; to combine with something else in this way

interconnectedness n. a state of being connected reciprocally

 /..nt.k..nekt.dn.s/

linkage /.l..k.d./ n. a system of links or connections

liberalization /.l.br.la.’ze...n/ n. the act of making a system, laws, or moral attitudes less 
strict

tariff /.t.r.f/ n. a government tax on imports or exports

tellingly /.tel..li/ adv. having a great or important effect

transcendence /tr.n.send.ns/ n. the state of excelling or surpassing or going beyond 
usual limits; a state of being or existence above and 
beyond the limits of material experience

trillion /.tr.lj.n/ num. one million million

version /.v....n/ n. a copy of something that has been changed so that it is 
slightly different

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. There are at least five distinctive ways in which globalization can be 
understood, among which thinking of globalization as a historical period is the 
best one.

b. Globalization has decreased income inequality in both developing and 
developed nations.

c. The biggest challenge of globalization’s impact on culture is the Americanization 
of the rest of the world through the spread of American brands and Hollywood 
films.

d. In order to have a better understanding of globalization, one needs to know not 
only its definitions, causes, impacts, but also how it affects people’s daily lives.


Exercises



II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. There is an accurate definition of globalization.

2. Globalization can be understood as the spread and dominance of 
certain values.

3. Globalization can change people’s experience of space and distance.

4. Just like technology, governments have clearly played a key role in 
globalization.

5. Globalization has not only decreased income inequality in the 
developing world, but also reduced environmental degradation by 
encouraging rapid industrialization and resource extraction in the 
developing world.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. According to the author, in what ways can globalization be understood?

2. What are the characteristics of globalization if one defines globalization as 
primarily a economic phenomenon?

3. What are the characteristics of globalization as a social revolution born of 
technological change?

4. What are the causes of globalization and how does it affect the world?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. While technology has clearly played a key role in increased government 
integration, it is not the sole factor. (Para. 9)

2. The rapid pace of globalization is largely due to the general embrace of policies. 
(Para. 9)

3. At the level of global and national economics, globalization has produced 
significant changes that reflect a more integrated world economy. (Para. 11)

4. On the other hand, globalization has decreased income inequality in the 
developing world, resulting in overall less inequality in the world. (Para. 12)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. Does the author support the idea that the rest of the world is going to be 
Americanized by globalization? What evidence in the text can you find to 

T F



support your answer?

2. How is human’s experience of time and space influenced by globalization? 
What are the typical characteristics?

3. How does globalization affect people’s life?

4. What do you know about globalization as advocated by American mainstream 
society, and what is your comment from the Chinese perspective?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence. 
Change the form if necessary.

credit containerize type embracement period
power convergence orient local diffusion

1. To some degree any ________________ is a matter of convenience, and it should be 
accepted as such.

2. Nowadays with the development of IT, television is not the only powerful 
means of ________________ knowledge.

3. Each side should state its own positions and then ________________ on a few 
points.

4. Life was in its spring, and every opening bud and flower in the green world 
seemed to ________________ the hope in her own heart!

5. It’s easy to get ________________ on university campus, because all the streets look 
alike.

6. In April 1956, the first of these converted ships sailed from New York to 
Houston, and ________________ became a sunrise industry.

7. There is more or less effort to ________________ books as educative tools and to lay 
emphasis on oral instruction and manual training.

8. Oil companies have visited these ________________, but their collecting was more 
in the nature of spot-checks.

9. They see their concerts as a way to ________________ women, both musically and 
socially.

10. You enter the mouth of a valley; the hills reach forth their arms to ________________ 
you, and you consciously enter a new world.



B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

impose…on pin down access to conceive of have a…presence
pave the way for be invoked to see…in hail from on the wane

1. When they talk about billions of dollars, I can’t even ________________ that much 
money.

2. Government forces ________________ by resistance fighters 30 miles north of the 
capital.

3. Data from the space flight should ________________ a more detailed exploration 
of Mars.

4. Apart from the piano work, the special teaching of elegant accomplishments 
seems just at present ________________.

5. Some people like to spend their whole holiday lying on a beach, but I don’t 
________________ the fun ________________ that.

6. The United Nations was prompted to________________ a ban ________________ 
selling nuclear technology to that country.

7. For technological and political reasons, scientists have only recently been able 
to gain ________________ these people’s medical records.

8. Both John and Leeza ________________ South Carolina.

9. If the underlying assumptions are not valid, then procedures must ________________ 
make them valid.

10. The United Nations still ________________ strong ________________ in the region for 
some time.

 II. Choose the right phrase in brackets to complete each sentence.

1. New business opportunities will ________________ (emerge from; emerge with) 
advances in technology.

2. The outline of the castle on the hill was clearly ________________(defined against; 
defined by) the evening sky.

3. A great advertising campaign comes from the successful ________________
(interaction between; interaction of ) strategic planning and creative skills.

4. I’d rather watch a movie with subtitles than one ________________ (dubbed by; 
dubbed into) English.

5 Environmental groups want a substantial reduction ________________ (in the 
emission of; on the emission of) greenhouse gases.



6 After getting mugged I ________________(retreated to; retreated into) my shell and 
didn’t speak to anyone for nearly a week.

7. Tickets are ________________(on sale; for sale) from the booking office.

8. If Mr. Putin does ________________(shrink from; shrink into) reform at home, 
however, he risks sowing the seeds of his own downfall.

9. Incidents such as marriage and death of a family member have often 
________________ (resulted into; resulted in) mobility for some members of the 
household.

10. Indeed, the ________________(decline in, decline of) world trade in the first year is 
equal to that in the first two years of the Great Depression.

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. Containerized shipping—the use of containers that are easily transferred from 
ship to truck or train—has dramatically reduced the cost of shipping goods.

2. Governments have the ability to limit globalization by setting up tariffs, 
restricting direct foreign investment, and limiting the flow of workers between 
countries.

3. Globalization has been shown to increase income inequality in developed 
nations, where the owners of capital invested abroad take in huge profits, while 
workers find their wages depressed by competition with foreign workers.

4. Many fear that globalization is causing the Americanization of the rest of the 
world through the spread of American brands (Nike, McDonalds, Gap) and 
culture (Hollywood films and American TV).

5. Globalization has accelerated environmental degradation by encouraging rapid 
industrialization and resource extraction in the developing world, as well as 
increasingly intensive energy use in the developed world.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 两种文化之间的交流接触会带来更多的合作和双边进一步的繁荣。（culture, 
contribute）

2. 即使是经验丰富的徒步旅行者，浓雾也会使他们迷失方向。（disorient）

3. 社会上的性别歧视导致男女之间的收入不平等。（inequality, result in）

4. 吸烟会增加得心脏病的危险。（increase, risk）

5. 显然，荒漠化这一形式的土地退化，使肥沃的土地变成了沙漠。（tellingly, 
degradation）



6. 病因目前还难以解释清楚。（pin down, precisely）

7. 众所周知，基础物理充满着对人类常识的挑战。（defy, human）

8. 他们现在有进入中国、日本和英国大众市场的途径了。（access, mass）

D

 Writing

Globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people, 
companies, and governments worldwide. It can be understood as the spread of products, 
technology, information, and jobs across national borders and cultures. As a complex 
and multifaceted phenomenon, it has a great impact on people’s daily life. Nowadays 
almost everyone knows Coca-cola and we can’t avoid globalization. Please write a 
composition of no less than 300 words to describe how globalization influences people’s 
work and life.



Dr. Jian Chen2, Distinguished guests,

1 I am very pleased to be invited to speak at the Annual Conference of the Chinese 
Economic Association. Globalization, competition and growth in greater China 
is a very interesting subject. Research and discussion on this subject are not only 
of realistic significance, but also will have a long term impact. I sincerely wish this 
symposium a complete success. Today, I would like to share with you some of my 
thoughts on globalization and China’s participation in this process.

How to view globalization

2 Globalization is the objective trend of economic development in the world today, 
featured by free flow and optimized allocation of capital, technology, information 
and service in the global context. It is the inevitable result of the development of 
productive forces and advances of science and technology, especially the revolution of 
information technology since the 1980s and 1990s.


B

Text

China and

Globalization

 Speech by H. E. Ambassador Zha Peixin at Chinese Economic Association1 Annual 
Conference (14 April, 2003)


1 Chinese Economic Association: an independent, not-for-profit research association of scholars, researchers, 
students and business executives concerned with China’s economic development. Its objectives are to advance 
the knowledge of the general public about economic development in China, and to promote and publish research 
on the Chinese economy.

2 Jian Chen: a member of Chinese Economic Association and also a professor at School of Contemporary Chinese 
Studies, University of Nottingham.



3 As a result, economic interdependence and interaction between countries are 
becoming ever stronger. In this massive tide of economic globalization, no country 
can develop and prosper in isolation. China has learned from her long history that 
isolation leads to backwardness. Development, progress and prosperity could only 
be achieved through opening to and integrating with the outside world, through 
stepping up exchanges and cooperation with other countries and through absorbing 
all fine results of human civilization. Therefore, we should embrace and seize the 
opportunities presented by globalization and adopt reforms to keep up with the steps 
of the changing world.

Challenges brought by globalization

4 Due to the lack of a just and equitable international economic order, the 
influence of globalization on countries at different stages of development is entirely 
different. The “dividends” derived from globalization are not fairly distributed. 
The developed countries have apparent advantages in capital, technology, human 
resources and administrative expertise and in setting the “rules of the game”. They are 
usually the most active propellers and the biggest beneficiaries of globalization. The 
developing countries on the other hand are on the whole in an unfavorably position. 
Developing countries can obtain some foreign investment, advanced technologies 
and management expertise, but at the same time they are the most vulnerable to the 
negative impacts of globalization and lack the ability to effectively fend off and reduce 
the risks and pitfalls that come along with globalization. In the 1990s, especially 
in recent years, the gap between the North and the South has further widened. 
The economic sovereignty and economic security of the developing countries are 
confronted with enormous pressure and stern challenges. Some least-developed 
countries are even on the brink of being marginalized by globalization. Therefore, in 
participation of globalization, developing countries should always be on alert and try 
by all means to exploit the advantages and avoid all kinds of risk and harm.

China’s experience

5 For China, globalization is often seen as a double-edged sword that brings 
both opportunities and challenges, advantages and disadvantages. How to turn 
disadvantages into advantages in the tidal wave of globalization depends on 
formulating the correct policies and strategies. If the policies are correct, challenges 
can be turned into opportunities. China has learned many lessons and accumulated 
rich experience in dealing with globalization from its practice of reform and opening-
up. In my personal opinion, they can be summarized as follows:

6 (1) To find a road of development that suits the national conditions. In the past 



20-odd years, China has maintained an annual growth rate of over 9.3% on average. 
China is now the 6th largest economy and the 5th largest trading nation in the 
world. More than 200 million people have been lifted out of poverty. The average life 
expectancy reached 71.8 years in 2002, close to that of a medium-level developed 
country. The accomplishments above were achieved against the backdrop of a volatile 
international situation. The reason why China can achieve so much in such a short 
span of time and in a constantly changing international environment is that China 
has found its own road of development, suitable to its national conditions, namely 
building socialism with Chinese characteristics.

7 (2) To adopt opening-up policy. China’s opening to the outside world is 
comprehensive. It opens not only to developed countries, but also to developing 
countries, not only in economic field, but also in all areas of social development. At 
the same time, it is not a blind opening, but a self-conscious one, not a disorganized 
opening, but a systematic one. During its opening-up, China paid special attention 
to give full play to its comparative advantages to actively conduct international 
cooperation and competition.

8 (3) To promote regional cooperation for better risk-resistance ability. Due to 
weakness in economic strength, it’s difficult for developing countries to resist the 
risk brought about by globalization on their own. Therefore, they should, through 
strengthening regional economic cooperation, rely on group strength to stand risks. 
Today, regional and sub-regional cooperation is becoming increasingly active. They 
complement and correlate with the trend of globalization. China has signed the 
Framework Agreement with ASEAN on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation 
with the aim of establishing China-ASEAN Free Trade Zone in 2010. The Shanghai 
Cooperation Organization is also forging closer economic links alongside with 
cooperation in security issues.

9 (4) To be vigilant against various risks, especially financial risks. The Asian 
financial crisis in 1997 has clearly been a microcosm of the challenges and dangers 
involved in economic globalization. When the crisis swept Asian countries, China 
adopted a responsible approach. China not only persisted not to devalue its own 
currency, but also contributed more than US$ 4 billion through bilateral and multi-
lateral channels to help the affected countries. This has helped to stabilize the 
financial situation in Asia as well as the world. Many lessons could be drawn from 
this crisis. Developing countries have to pay special attention to the restructuring and 
strengthening of their financial system. Developing countries should keep the destiny 
of their economy in their own hands and should not lose the grip to others.



10 (5) To push for the establishment of a new international economic order 
which is just and rational. A globalized economy calls for globalized regulation and 
cooperation. All countries, big or small, poor or rich, strong or weak, should have the 
right of equal participation in international economic affairs, and the formulation and 
revision of the “rules of the game” should not be determined by only a small number 
of countries or groups of countries. To establish a fair and rational international 
economic order is the only way to ensure that the benefits of globalization are shared 
more widely and equitably. The new order should uphold the principle of equality 
and mutual benefit and common development. It should be conducive to narrow the 
gap between the North and South so as to make it possible for the trend of economic 
globalization to evolve in the direction favorable to the common prosperity of 
mankind.

China’s contribution to world economy

11 China’s participation in globalization is by no means a one-way street. When 
the world economic growth remains weak, China’s economy is one of the few bright 
spots. As World Bank Report on Global Development Finance 2003 published in 
early April pointed out that China’s fast growth “helped to drive the recovery in East 
Asia. Together with policy stimulus in other countries, China’s performance lifted the 
region to growth of 6.7% in 2002, up from 5.5% in 2001. Average regional growth of 
more than 6% is expected for the next two years, with China increasingly becoming 
the engine of the regional economy.”

12 China has also provided the world with the largest rising market. When more 
than 1.25 billion people become well-off, the demand on everything will be enormous. 
Just to give you an example, in the coming 10 years alone, China will import US$2 
trillion of goods from the outside world. A recent article in the Economist3 highlighted 
the benefits brought by China’s growth: “Millions of consumers in other countries 
are gaining from the low prices and high quality of Chinese goods. A billion Chinese 
are escaping the dire poverty of the past. Business across the globe will profit from 
supplying a vast new market. These are wonders to be celebrated, not threats to be 
agonized over.”

Blueprint for future development

13 China’s new Premier, during his first press conference after the First Session of the 
10th National People’s Congress last month, summarized the immediate tasks ahead 

3 Economist: an international weekly newspaper printed in magazine-format and published digitally that focuses on 
current affairs, international business, politics, and technology.



in the following 4 points:

14 (1) Strive to achieve one objective: to maintain a steady and rapid economic 
growth and continuously improve people’s living standards. To this end, continuity 
and consistency of policy will be ensured. China continues to expand domestic 
demand and adopt a proactive fiscal policy and a prudent monetary policy.

15 (2) Grasp two crucial links: to continue to advance the strategic restructuring of 
China’s economy and continue to open up to the outside world.

16 (3) Solve three major economic issues in the economy: unemployment and 
social security system, increase fiscal revenue and cut public expenditure, rectify and 
regulate market economic order.

17 (4) Advance reform in four major areas: rural reform, state-owned enterprise 
reform, financial reform and governmental institution reform. Reform of the state-
owned enterprises continues to be taken as the central task. China is committed 
to establish a modern corporate system while deepening reform in state assets 
management. In financial reform, the financial regulatory system will be improved 
and at the same time reform of the state-owned financial institutions will be 
accelerated so as to establish a modern financial corporate system in the real sense.

18 The tasks are enormous. There will be all kinds of difficulties ahead, some 
foreseen and some unexpected. But we are determined and remain confident that 
pressure can be turned into motive force. Through reform and opening-up over the 
past 20 years, China has accumulated valuable experience as well as sound material 
strength. China today is in a better position to face severe challenges. With the 
concerted efforts of the Chinese people, the strategic goal of building a well-off society 
in an all-round way will be achieved. By learning swimming through practice, China 
will master the art of riding the tide of globalization and in the process we will surely 
achieve the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

(1,704 words)


Words and Expressions

agonize /..ɡ.na.z/ vt. to spend a long time thinking and worrying about a 
difficult situation or problem

backdrop /.b.kdr.p/ n. the general conditions in which an event takes place, 
which sometimes help to explain



backwardness /.b.kw.dn.s/ n. the state of having made less progress than normal

beneficiary /.ben..f...ri/ n. a person who gains as a result of something

bilateral /ba..l.t.r.l/ adj. involving two groups of people or two countries

brink /br..k/ n. a region marking a boundary; the limit beyond which 
something happens or changes

conducive /k.n.dju.s.v/ adj. making it easy, possible or likely for something to happen

correlate /.k.r.le.t/ vi. (two or more facts, figures, etc.) to closely connect and 
affect each other

devalue /di..v.lju./ vt. to give a lower value to something, making it seem less 
important than it really is

dire /.da../ adj. extremely serious or terrible

dividend /.d.v.dend/ n. an amount of the profits that a company pays to people 
who own shares in the company

equitable /.ekw.t.b.l/ adj. fair and reasonable; treating everyone in an equal way

expenditure /.k.spend.t../ n. an amount of money spent; the act of spending or using 
money

exploit /.k.spl..t/ vt. to treat a person or situation as an opportunity to gain 
an advantage for yourself

fiscal /.f.sk.l/ adj. connected with government or public money, especially 
taxes

foresee /f...si./ vt. to think something is going to happen in the future; to 
know about something before it happens

formulate /.f..mjule.t/ vt. to create or prepare something carefully, giving particular 
attention to the details

microcosm /.ma.kr..k.z.m/ n. a thing, a place or a group that has all the features and 
qualities of something much larger

multi-lateral /.m.lt..l.t.r.l/ adj. involving several different groups, nations, etc.

optimize /..pt.ma.z/ vt. to make something as good as it can be; to use something 
in the best possible way

propeller /pr..pel./ n. a device with two or more blades that turn quickly and 
cause a ship or an aircraft to move forward

prosper /.pr.sp./ vi. to develop in a successful way; to be successful, 
especially in making money

prudent /.pru.d.nt/ adj. sensible and careful when you make judgements and 
decisions; avoiding unnecessary risks

rectify /.rekt.fa./ vt. to put right something that is wrong

rejuvenation /r..d.u.v.’ne...n/ n. the phenomenon of vitality and freshness being restored

revenue /.rev.nju./ n. the money that a government receives from taxes or that 
an organization, etc. receives from its business

sovereignty /.s.vr.nti/ n. complete power to govern a country; the state of being 
a country with freedom to govern itself



Discuss the following questions. 

1. What are the challenges brought by globalization?

2. China has learned many lessons and accumulated rich experience in dealing 
with globalization. Can you summarize some of them?

3. How to understand China’s contribution to world economy?

4. What is China’s blueprint for future development?

Reflective Work

1. Globalization is a complicated issue. Supporters of globalization argue that it 
has the potential to make this world a better place to live in and solve some 
of the deep-seated problems like unemployment and poverty. How do you 
evaluate the pros of globalization?

2. The general complaint about globalization is that it has made the rich richer 
while making the poor poorer. How do you evaluate the cons of globalization?

stimulus /.st.mj.l.s/ n. something that helps somebody or something to 
develop better or more quickly

symposium /s.m.p..zi.m/ n. a meeting at which experts have discussions about a 
particular subject; a small conference

vigilant /.v.d..l.nt/ adj. very careful to notice any signs of danger or trouble

volatile /.v.l.ta.l/ adj. changing suddenly and unexpectedly; changing easily 
from one mood to another


Exercises

Discussion and Exploration



Intercultural Thinking

1. Have you ever watched American Factory? It is a 2019 American documentary 
film directed by Steven Bognar and Julia Reichert. In post-industrial Ohio, a 
Chinese billionaire opens a new factory in the husk of an abandoned General 
Motors plant, hiring two thousand blue-collar Americans. Early days of hope 
and optimism give way to setbacks as high-tech China clashes with working-
class America. What do you think of globalization after watching American 
Factory?

2. In your opinion, does globalization concentrate on making the world an equal 
place for all layers of the society to reside, or does it help in making the rich 
richer and the poor poorer?

Further Reading

1

 
Title Impact of Globalization: The Good, the Bad, the 
Inevitable

 Summary Globalization is by no means an easy term to understand. This article 
mainly discusses the good, the bad, and the inevitable impacts of 
globalization. Hopefully the good will out-weigh the bad, but the 
continued existence of both is inevitable. Because of this, we are better off 
accepting the truth and, like we do best, moving forward. But make no 
mistake: Environmentalism is gaining speed.

2

 
Title The Pros and Cons of Globalization

 Summary This article believes that globalization is a complicated 
issue. It is necessary to evaluate the pros and cons before drawing any 
conclusions. Supporters of globalization argue that it has the potential to 
make this world a better place to live in and solve some of the deep-seated 
problems like unemployment and poverty, while opponents believe that 
globalization is bad or harmful in economy, social justice and even health, 
as well as many other aspects. Thus this article concludes that, though we 
can’t stop globalization, there are many policies and strategies we can use 
to make it more equitable.



Communication

Unit



Introduction

When we are thinking, it is intrapersonal communication. When there is face-to-
face conversation between two people, it is interpersonal communication. College 
lectures or speeches would be an example of group communication. However, there is 
another level of communication when we read newspapers or magazines, listen to radio, 
or watch TV. This would be called “mass communication” as the message is reached to 
the masses through different media. Different media are involved in the process of mass 
communication. They reach every corner of the world and are very powerful. They invade 
even the privacy of our bedrooms. They inform, educate, entertain and persuade. They 
also help in the transmission of culture and perform the job of surveillance of the society. 
They are the mass media. Mass communication is a term used to describe the academic 
study of various means by which individuals and entities relay information to large 
segments of the population all at once through mass media.

1

 Find different media of communication around you and identify their elements.

2

 Do you think mass communication is a powerful form of communication? Why or 
why not?

3

 What are the strengths and weaknesses of films as a medium of mass communication?

4

 Can you briefly describe the history of the newspaper as a medium of mass 
communication?

5

 What do we mean by “mass media”? How important is mass media in today’s world?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks

125

Unit

Communication



A

Text

Mass 

Communication

1 Mass communication can be defined as a process whereby mass-produced 
messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of receivers. 
By “mass-produced” we mean putting the content or message of mass communication 
in a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of people. “Heterogeneous” means 
that the individual members of the mass are from a wide variety of classes of the 
society. “Anonymous” means the individuals in the mass do not know each other. The 
source or sender of message in mass communication does not know the individual 
members of the mass. Also, the receivers in mass communication are physically 
separated from each other and share no physical proximity. Finally, the individual 
members forming a mass are not united. They have no social organization and no 
customs and traditions, no established sets of rules, no structure or status role and no 
established leadership.

Elements of mass communication

2 We require a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver for communication 
to occur. Further there is feedback, which is the response or reaction of the 
receiver, which comes back to the sender through the same or some other channel. 
Another element, which plays an important role in communication, is noise or the 
disturbances.

3 Source: Source or sender of the message may become the same or different. 
Source mostly represents the institution or organization where the idea has been 



started. In case of source and the sender being different, the sender belongs to 
media institution or is a professional in media communication. Thus, a scientist or a 
technologist may use mass communication media himself for propagating his idea. Or 
else, they can send the script of the message to the media for delivering the message by 
an announcer or a reporter.

4 Message: A message needs reproduction for making it communicable through 
the media. The message is processed and put to various forms, such as talk, discussion 
interview, documentary, play, in case of radio and TV. In case of newspapers, the 
message is processed by means of article, feature, news story, etc.

5 Channel: The terms “channel” and “media” are used interchangeably in mass 
communication. Modern mass media spread the message with enormous speed 
far and wide. More information is coming faster, at cheaper rates per unit, from 
farther away and from more sources through more channels including multimedia 
channels with more varied subject matter. Channels of mass communication can be 
classified into two broad categories: Print (newspapers, books, magazines, pamphlets); 
Electronic (radio, television, cinema). There is also a third category which includes all 
traditional media like folk dance, drama, folk songs and so on.

6 Receiver: Mass communication means communication to the mass, so there 
remains mass of individuals at the receiver end of the communication. The individuals 
involved are unknown to one other. The most outstanding characteristic of mass 
communication is that it has a widespread audience separated from the source by a 
considerable distance. Mass communication has an enormous ability to multiply a 
message and make it available in many places. The greatest advantage of this mode 
of communication is the rapid spread of message to a sizeable audience remaining 
scattered far and wide.

7 Feedback: Mass communication will have indirect feedback. A source having 
communicated a message regarding family planning through radio, television or 
print either has to depend on indirect means like survey of audience reaction, letters 
and telephone calls from audience members, review of the program by columnists 
to know the reaction of audience to the message. Direct feedback, which is possible 
in interpersonal and to a limited extent in group communication, is almost absent in 
mass communication.

8 Noise: Noise in mass communication is of two types, namely, channel noise 
and semantic noise. Channel noise is any disturbance within transmission aspects of 
media. In print media, channel noise will be misspellings, scrambled words, omitted 
lines or misprinting. It may refer to any type of mechanical failure which stops the 



message from reaching the audience in its original form. Semantic noise will include 
language barriers, difference in education level, socio-economic status, occupation, 
age, experience and interests between the source and the audience members.

Different media of mass communication

9 There are different media involved in the process of mass communication. They 
reach every corner of the world and are very powerful. They invade even the privacy 
of our bedrooms. They inform, educate, entertain and persuade. They also help in 
the transmission of culture and perform the job of surveillance of the society. They 
are the mass media. The prominent ones, which have become household names, are 
newspapers, magazines, books, radio, film, television, and more recently, satellite TV 
and cable TV. Mass media is broadly divided into print media and electronic media. 
While the print media are the oldest, having a history of about five hundred years, the 
electronic media are products of the 20th century technological revolution.

10 Newspaper: The newspaper is a combination of elements from many societies 
and many periods of time. The Chinese and Koreans were using wood-carved type 
and paper for printing several centuries before these appeared in Europe. In the 16th 
century, well after printing had come to Europe, the Venetian government printed a 
small newssheet, which could be purchased for a gazeta, a small coin. The use of the 
word “gazette” to refer to newspapers has survived to this day. Today, the newspaper 
regularly publishes printed unbounded newsprint in broadsheet or tabloid size and 
serves general interests of specific communities with news, comments, features, 
photographs and advertisements.

11 Magazine: Magazines have a variety of contents in them. They have specific 
well-defined readers and they are dependent on advertising and try to reach special 
groups of men, women, film lovers, young generation, etc. through it. Today, we 
have magazines for every topic under the sun like, beauty and fashion, business and 
commerce, art and craft, education and career, health and grooming, photography, 
automobiles, electronics, science and technology, etc. Magazines do play an important 
role in information, education, and offer variety of subjects for entertainment of its 
specific target readership.

12 Book: Books are rated as an important mass medium because of the credibility 
factor. Books are credible because of their association with formal education and 
because they are durable and long lasting. Books sold to general consumers through 
bookshops are called trade books. Paperbacks are sold through both bookstores 
and newsstands. Textbooks are for the elementary, high school and college students. 
Professional or scholarly books are meant for university students and experts.



13 Radio: Radio established its place very fast in the minds of listeners. Heavy doses 
of infotainment including music, drama, talk shows supplemented with news made 
radio popular overnight. Radio programs may be classified into two groups: 
(i) Spoken word programs, which include news bulletins, talks, discussions, interviews, 
educational programs for schools and colleges, specific audience programs directed at 
women, children, rural and urban listeners, drama, radio features and documentaries; 
(ii) Music programs, which include disc jockey programs, musical performances of all 
types and various programs.

14 Television: Television captures our imagination and is the most complete and 
dramatic of all mass media. In addition to providing news and events, television 
also packages fiction, drama, culture, economy and many other things. It has all the 
strengths of radio except that it needs captive audience, has not attained portability 
and miniaturization and needs power line for inexpensive working. Repetition of 
message does not incur expense except nominal fees for cable connections. Television 
like radio, is in all sense a “now” medium.

15 Film: Films refer to all documentary, educational, feature, informational and 
advertisement cinemas. Usually films deal with universal themes so language barrier 
is minimal and we can thoroughly enjoy film of another language if we like the theme. 
Highly-decorated theatre halls, multiplexes, cinemascope, I-max screens in shopping 
complexes are now attracting more and more audience. It can be safely concluded that 
film, as a medium of entertainment and communication and as an industry, would 
continue to grow and hold an important part in our social system.

16 Computer: There is a rising use of personal computers by individuals at home 
and in offices. Today, average person has the skill to use basic computer in daily life. 
As the essence of mass communication is that professional communicators operate the 
media to a large and heterogeneous audience, a computer network in which people 
send messages to each other will be a different kind of process altogether. However, 
where records of memos, messages, and transactions are done, this medium would 
be considered to be a medium of mass communication. A more likely prospect is 
that new mass media will develop by coupling computers to modern variants of cable 
television. In fact, experimental media using this technology have already come into 
use.

Major functions of mass communication

17 The contents of mass communication seem diverse in nature to audience as they 
expose themselves to thousands of media stimuli throughout the day and round the 
clock. News, reviews, commentaries, and advertisements can saturate the audience. 



Thus, the audience members select the messages according to their needs. The major 
functions of mass communication are as follows.

18 Surveillance: Surveillance is the process of monitoring the behavior of people, 
objects or processes for conformity to expected or desired norms in trusted systems 
for security or social control. Mass communication keeps watch on socio-political-
economic events of the close and faraway localities and reaches the accounts to the 
audience through creative reporting.

19 Information: Mass communication provides us enormous information about 
the environment in which we live. Information, such as news of war, danger, crisis, 
earthquake or famine, helps us take appropriate steps to safeguard our interests.

20 Entertainment: We all need entertainment to break the monotony of our stressful 
life and divert our attention from the troubles and tensions. Such diversion will 
have a positive impact on our lives. Mass media provides a variety of entertainment 
to audiences through films, TV shows, drama, dance, music, art, comedy, games, 
animation and so on.

21 Persuasion: Persuasion is an alternative term used to denote an act of influencing 
others. One of the most important functions of mass communication is to persuade the 
other person. It is only through persuasion that one can control and govern others. The 
persuasive potential of mass communication is used heavily in both developing and 
developed countries. Media are extensively used for socio-economic progress and for 
sales promotion of the consumer goods.

22 Instruction: Mass communication helps to instruct, educate and socialize the 
members of the society. Mass communication provides a fund of knowledge, expertise 
and skills that enable people to operate as effective members of society. It also creates 
awareness and gives direction and opportunity to audience through positive impact of 
mass media.

23 Cultural Promotion: Media educate the people toward better living and preserving 
the traditions of the society. Mass media provide an opportunity for culture to be 
preserved and promoted. It presents different cultures, beliefs and customs from 
different countries and helps us promote ours to all parts of the world. Thus, individuals 
come to know one another, understand and appreciate others’ ways of life and thereby 
develop tolerance towards one another.

(1,842 words)



animation /..n..me...n/ n. a film or movie in which drawings of people and animals 
seem to move

anonymous /..n.n.m.s/ adj. (of a person) not identified by name; of unknown name

broadsheet /.br..d.i.t/ n. a newspaper printed on a large size of paper, generally 
considered more serious than smaller newspapers

cinemascope /.s.n.m.sk..p/ n. a method of showing films or movies which makes the 
picture on the screen very wide

communicable /k..mju.n.k.b.l/ adj. capable of being communicated

complex /.k.mpleks/ n. a group of buildings, or a large building with many parts, 
used for a particular purpose

credibility /.kred..b.l.ti/ n. the quality of deserving to be believed and trusted

deliver /d..l.v./ vt. to take goods, letters, etc. to the person or people they 
have been sent to; to take somebody somewhere

disturbance /d..st..b.ns/ n. the act of disturbing somebody or something or the fact 
of being disturbed

feature /.fi.t../ n. (in newspapers, on television, etc.) a special article or 
program about somebody or something

feedback /.fi.db.k/ n. advice, criticism or information about how good or 
useful something or somebody’s work is

gazette /ɡ..zet/ n. an official newspaper, especially one from the 
government giving important lists of people who have 
been employed by them, etc.

grooming /.ɡru.m../ n. the things that you do to keep your clothes and hair 
clean and neat, or to keep an animal’s fur or hair clean

heterogeneous /.het.r...d.i.ni.s/ adj. diverse in character or content

infotainment /..nf...te.nm.nt/ n. radio or television program that are intended both to 
entertain people and to give information

interchangeably

 /..nt..t.e.nd..b.li/ adv. in a way that can be exchanged, especially without 
affecting the way in which something works

miniaturization

 /.m.n.t..ra..ze...n/ n. the process of making something in a very small size

multiplex /.m.lt.pleks/ n. a cinema that has several different rooms in which it can 
show films

newsprint /.nju.zpr.nt/ n. the cheap paper that newspapers are printed on

newssheet /.nju.z.i.t/ n. report or open letter giving informal or confidential news 
of interest to a special group


Words and Expressions



newsstand /.nju.zst.nd/ n. a place on a street where newspapers and magazines 
are sold

pamphlet /.p.mfl.t/ n. a very thin book with a paper cover, containing information 
about a particular subject

paperback /.pe.p.b.k/ n. a book that has a thick paper cover

photography /f..t.ɡr.fi/ n. the art, profession, or method of producing photographs 
or the scenes in films

portability /.p..t..b.l.ti/ n. the quality or state of being easy to carry or to move

propagate /.pr.p.ɡe.t/ vt. to spread an idea, a belief of a piece of information 
among many people

proximity /pr.k.s.m.ti/ n. nearness in space, time, or relationship

safeguard /.se.fɡɑ.d/ vt. to protect somebody or something from loss, harm or 
damage

scatter /.sk.t./ vi. to throw or drop things in different directions so that 
they cover an area of ground

semantic /s..m.nt.k/ adj. relating to the meanings of words

sizeable /.sa.z.b.l/ adj. fairly large

status /.ste.t.s/ n. the social or professional position of somebody or 
something in relation to others

supplement /.s.pl.m.nt/ vt. to add something, especially to what you earn or eat, in 
order to increase it to an acceptable level

surveillance /s...ve.l.ns/ n. watch or guard kept over a person, etc., especially over 
a suspected person, a prisoner, or the like; often, spying, 
supervision; less commonly, supervision for the purpose 
of direction or control

tabloid /.t.bl..d/ n. a newspaper with small pages (usually half the size of 
those in larger papers)

unbounded /.n.ba.nd.d/ adj. extreme or without any limit; boundless

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. This passage presents a list of functions of mass communication.

b. This passage gives a brief description of different media of mass communication.


Exercises



c. This passage introduces some elements of mass communication.

d. All of the above.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. In print media, semantic noise will be misspellings, scrambled 
words, omitted lines or misprinting.

2. While the print media are the oldest, having a history of about 
nine hundred years, the electronic media are products of the 20th 
century technological revolution.

3. The Chinese and Koreans were using wood-carved type and paper 
for printing several centuries before these appeared in Europe.

4. Books have specific well-defined readers and thus advertisers can 
reach specific target people through them more effectively.

5. Mass communication provides a fund of knowledge, expertise and 
skills that enable people to operate as effective members of society.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. What is the definition of mass communication?

2. How many elements are involved in mass communication?

3. Can you list some media of mass communication in our daily life?

4. What are the main functions of mass communication?

5. How can we distinguish the difference between communication and mass 
communication?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. They have no social organization and no customs and traditions, no established 
sets of rules, no structure or status role and no established leadership. (Para. 1)

2. The most outstanding characteristic of mass communication is that it has a 
widespread audience separated from the source by a considerable distance. 
(Para. 6)

3. The greatest advantage of this mode of communication is the rapid spread of 
message to a sizeable audience remaining scattered far and wide. (Para. 6)

4. Semantic noise will include language barriers, difference in education level, 
socio-economic status, occupation, age, experience and interests between the 
source and the audience members. (Para. 8)

5. Today, the newspaper regularly publishes printed unbounded newsprint in 

T F



broadsheet or tabloid size and serves general interests of specific communities 
with news, comments, features, photographs and advertisements. (Para. 10)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. Can you give a brief introduction to communication, mass communication, 
and mass media?

2. Can you summarize the characteristics of mass communication?

3. Can you describe how the mass communication process itself will evolve as the 
role of the audience in this new media environment?

4. How can the organizational and economic nature of the contemporary book 
industry shape the content of books?

5. Can you explain the convergence of magazines with the Internet and mobile 
technologies?

6. What is your understanding of the three components of the film industry—
production, distribution, and exhibition—according to what you have learned 
about mass communication?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. Some diseases are ________________ by some water animals.

 a. transplanted b. transformed c. transported d. transmitted

2. The country was an island that enjoyed civilized living for a thousand years or 
more with little ________________ from the outside world.

 a. disturbance b. discrimination c. irritation d. irregularity

3. Though it was less attractive, Ralph knew the metal box would be more 
________________ than the wooden box.

 a. ultimate b. permanent c. terminal d. durable

4. The ________________ are covering the presidential election thoroughly.

 a. media b. information c. data d. message



5. This agreement will ________________ the newspapers from government 
interference.

 a. prevent b. safeguard c. guard d. avoid

6. Some educators try to put students of familiar abilities into the same class 
because they believe this kind of ________________ grouping is advisable.

 a. homogeneous b. instantaneous c. spontaneous d. anonymous

7. Medical students are advised that the wearing of a white coat ________________ 
the acceptance of a professional code of conduct expected of the medical 
profession.

 a. simulates b. supplements c. swears d. signifies

8. In your first days at the school you’ll be given a test to help the teachers to 
________________ you to a class at your level.

 a. locate b. assign c. deliver d. place

9. If a person talks about his weak points, his listener is expected to say something 
in the way of ________________.

 a. assurance b. persuasion c. encouragement d. confirmation

10. To label their produce as organic, farmers have to obtain a certificate showing 
that no ________________ chemicals have been used to kill pests on the farm for 
two years.

 a. toxic b. tragic c. nominal d. notorious

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a word or a phrase taken from 
the box in its appropriate form.

supplement couple diversification local divide into
safeguard animation promote preserve interchangeable

1. These expressions are often used ________________, but they do have different 
meanings. 

2. A recent study of ancient and modern elephants has come up with the 
unexpected conclusion that the African elephant is ________________ two distinct 
species.

3. In addition, this model can be further ________________ with advertising if the 
ratio of free users to upgrades is less than expected.

4. However, you need it to ensure a clean interface and achieve a looser ________________ 
with the remote clients.



5. I have spent my life getting to know ________________ literatures of different 
epochs.

6. The meeting urged all ________________ and departments concerned to strengthen 
guidance and supervision and inspection, to increase penalties for illegal land use.

7. It reinforces the resolve of its neighbors to intensify their cooperation to 
________________ peace and stability in the region against all provocations.

8. This film is the first British ________________ sold to an American network.

9. Advertising and ________________ are what American business does best.

10. Well before the arrival of freezers, there was a demand for ice for ________________ 
and catering food.

 II. Each of the following sentences contains one error. You are to find out 
the error and correct it.

1. The receivers in mass communication are physically separated from each other 
and shares no physical proximity.

2. They can send the script of the message to the media for deliver the message by 
an announcer or a reporter.

3. In case of newspapers, the message is processed by mean of article, feature, news 
story, etc.

4. Modern mass media spread the message with enormous speed far and away.

5. More information is coming faster, at cheap rates per unit, from farther away 
and from more sources through more channels including multimedia channels 
with more varied subject matter.

6. The most outstanded characteristic of mass communication is that it has a 
widespread audience separated from the source by a considerable distance.

7. Direct feedback, which is possible in interpersonal and in a limited extent in 
group communication, is almost absent in mass communication.

8. There are different media involving in the process of mass communication.

9. They also help in the transmission of culture and perform the job of 
surveillances of the society.

10. It also creates awareness and gives direction and opportunity to audience 
through positive impact on mass media.

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. Mass communication can be defined as a process whereby mass-produced 



messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of 
receivers.

2. Mass communication means communication to the mass, so there remains 
mass of individuals at the receiver end of the communication.

3. Heavy doses of infotainment including music, drama, talk shows supplemented 
with news made radio popular overnight.

4. Highly-decorated theater halls, multiplexes, cinemascope, I-max screens in 
shopping complexes are now attracting more and more audience.

5. Surveillance is the process of monitoring the behavior of people, objects or 
processes within systems for conformity to expected or desired norms in trusted 
systems for security or social control.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words given in 
brackets.

1. 虽然现在还可以匿名浏览，但是一些观察家认为，这样的日子很快就会结束了。
（anonymous）

2. 然而，如果你有一个具有各种不同平台的异构网络，那么你需要在每个不同的环境
中重复下一个步骤。（heterogeneous）

3. 手机也能建立自身的社交网络，这种网络可以根据对方与你的接近程度，向你提供
同处一室之内所有联系人的信息。（proximity）

4. 当前尚没有一种方法可以做到让某个组件控制器处理部分事件，然后再将其传播到
更高层的控制器以便做进一步的处理。（propagate）

5. 世界卫生组织还将帮助建立一个疾病监测系统，以便发现和控制包括新冠肺炎疾病
在内的传染病的爆发。（surveillance）

6. 你可以把电影比作可视艺术进行描写绘制，它可以像照片一样呈现事实，也可以像
新闻一样进行解释和报道，还可以像小册子一样用于讨论。（journalism）

7. 在刚刚过去的这个周末，美国的电影票房收入再创历史新高，观众们纷纷涌入综合
性多厅影院观看一系列大片。（multiplex）

8. 由于电子技术、信息技术和控制技术的发展，器件的小型化和集成化对材料提出了
新的要求。（miniaturization）

D

 Writing

Mass media are very important tools of communication, through which 
information is passed to even the farthest end of the world. They enable us to 
communicate with each other by helping us to overcome the barriers of time and 
space. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant 
examples from your own knowledge or experience. Write an essay with no less than 300 
words.



In the competitive and rapidly changing world of mass media communications, 
media professionals—overcome by deadlines, bottom-line imperatives, and corporate 
interests—can easily lose sight of the ethical implications of their work. However, as 
entertainment law specialist Sherri Burr points out, “Because network television is an 
audiovisual medium that is piped free into 99 percent of American homes, it is one of the 
most important vehicles for depicting cultural images to our population.” Considering the 
profound influence mass media have on cultural perceptions and attitudes, it is important 
for the creators of media content to grapple with ethical issues.

Stereotypes and minority exclusion in mass media

1 The U.S. population is becoming increasingly diverse. According to U.S. Census 
statistics from 2010, 27.6 percent of the population identifies its race as non-white. 
Yet in network television broadcasts, major publications, and other forms of mass 
media and entertainment, minorities are often either absent or presented as heavily 
stereotyped, two-dimensional characters. Rarely are minorities depicted as complex 
characters with the full range of human emotions, motivations, and behaviors. 
Meanwhile, the stereotyping of women, gays and lesbians, and individuals with 
disabilities in mass media has also been a source of concern.

2 The word “stereotype” originated in the printing industry as a method of making 
identical copies, and the practice of stereotyping people is much the same: a system of 
identically replicating an image of “other” stereotypes—especially those disseminated 


B

Text

Ethical Issues in

Mass Media

Jack Lule1


1 Jack Lule: the professor of Journalism and the director of The Globalization and Social Change Initiative at Lehigh 
University.



through mass media—becomes a form of social control, shaping collective perceptions 
and individual identities. In American mass media, the white man is still shown as 
the standard: the central figure of television narratives and the dominant perspective 
on everything from trends, to current events, to politics. White maleness becomes an 
invisible category because it gives the impression of being the norm.

3 Besides the trend of moulding minorities as stereotypes, minority exclusion is 
also a major concern. In the fall of 1999, when the major television networks released 
their schedules for the upcoming programming season, a startling trend became clear. 
Of the 26 newly released television programs, none depicted an African American 
in a leading role, and even the secondary roles on these shows included almost no 
racial minorities. In response to this omission, the National Association for the 
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Council of La Raza 
(NCLR), an advocacy group for Hispanic Americans, organized protests and boycotts. 
Pressured—and embarrassed—into action, the executives from the major networks 
made a fast dash to add racial minorities to their prime-time shows, not only among 
actors, but also among producers, writers, and directors. Four of the networks—ABC, 
CBS, NBC, and Fox—added a vice president of diversity position to help oversee the 
network’s progress toward creating more diverse programming.

4 Despite these changes and greater public attention regarding diversity issues, 
minority underrepresentation is still an issue in all areas of mass media. In fact, the 
trend in recent years has been regressive. Additionally, according to a 2002 study by 
the University of California, Los Angeles, the problem is not only a visible one, but 
also one that extends behind the scenes. The study found that minorities are even 
more underrepresented in creative and decision-making positions than they are on 
screen. This lack of representation among producers, writers, and directors often 
directly affects the way minorities are portrayed in film and television, leading to racial 
stereotypes.

Femininity in mass media

5 In the ABC sitcom The Donna Reed Show (1958–1966), actress Donna Reed plays 
a stay-at-home mother who fills her days with housework, cooking for her husband 
and children, decorating, and participating in community organizations, all while 
wearing pearls, heels, and stylish dresses. Such a traditional portrayal of femininity 
no doubt sounds dated to modern audiences, but stereotyped gender roles continue 
to thrive in the mass media. Women are still often represented as subordinate to their 
male counterparts—emotional, noncompetitive, domestic, and sweet natured. In 
contrast to these types, other women are represented as unattractively masculine, crazy, 
or cruel. In television dramas and sitcoms, women continue to fill traditional roles 



such as mothers, nurses, secretaries, and housewives. By contrast, men in film and 
television are less likely to be shown in the home, and male characters are generally 
characterized by dominance, aggression, action, physical strength, and ambition. 
In the mainstream news media, men are predominately featured as authorities on 
specialized issues like business, politics, and economics, while women are more likely 
to report on stories about natural disasters or domestic violence—coverage that does 
not require expertise. In sports programming, men are the authoritative figures in the 
broadcast booth while women are “sideline reporters”.

6 Not only is the white male perspective still presented as the standard, authoritative 
one, but also the media itself often comes to embody the male gaze. Media 
commentator Nancy Hass notes that “shows that don’t focus on men have to feature 
the sort of women that guys might watch”. Feminist critics have long been concerned 
by the way women in film, television, and print media are defined by their sexuality. 
Few female role models exist in the media who are valued primarily for qualities like 
intelligence or leadership. Inundated by images that conform to unrealistic beauty 
standards, women come to believe at an early age that their value depends on their 
physical attractiveness. According to one Newsweek article, eating disorders in girls 
are now routinely being diagnosed at younger ages, sometimes as early as 8 or 9. The 
models who appear in magazines and print advertising are unrealistically skinny 
(23 percent thinner than the average woman), and their photographs are further 
enhanced to hide flaws and blemishes. Meanwhile, the majority of women appearing 
on television are under the age of 30, and many older actresses, facing the pressure to 
embody the youthful ideal, undergo surgical enhancements to appear younger.

7 In addition to the prevalence of gender stereotypes, the ratio of men to women 
in the mass media, in and behind the scenes, is also disproportionate. Surprisingly, 
though women slightly outnumber men in the general population, over two-thirds 
of television sitcoms feature men in the starring role. Among writers, producers, 
directors, and editors, the number of women lags far behind. In Hollywood, for 
instance, only 17 percent of behind-the-scenes creative talent is represented by 
women. Communications researcher Martha Lauzen argues that “when women have 
more powerful roles in the making of a movie or television show, we know that we also 
get more powerful female characters on-screen, women who are more real and more 
multi-dimensional”.

Sexual content in mass media

8 Creators of all forms of media know that sex—named, innuendoed, or overtly 
displayed—is a surefire way to grab an audience’s attention. “Sex sells” is an advertising 
cliché; the list of products that advertisers have linked to erotic imagery or innuendo, 



from cosmetics and cars to vacation packages and beer, is nearly inexhaustible. Most 
often, sexualized advertising content is served up in the form of the female body, in 
part or in whole, featured in provocative or suggestive poses beside a product that may 
have nothing to do with sexuality. However, by linking these two things, advertisers 
are marketing desire itself.

9 Sex is used to sell not just consumer goods; it sells media, too. Music videos on 
MTV and VH1, which promote artists and their music, capture audience attention 
with highly suggestive dance moves, often performed by scantily clad women. 
Recent music videos by Jennifer Lopez, Rihanna, Beyoncé, and Lady Gaga are just a 
few examples. Movie trailers may flash brief images of nudity or passionate kissing 
to suggest more to come in the movie. Video games feature female characters like 
Lara Croft of Tomb Raider, whose tightly-fitted clothes reveal all the curves of her 
Barbie-doll figure. And partially nude models grace the cover of men’s and women’s 
magazines like Maxim, Cosmopolitan, and Vogue where cover lines promise titillating 
tips, gossip, and advice on bedroom behavior.

10 In the 1920s and 1930s, filmmakers attracted audiences to the silver screen with 
the promise of what was then considered scandalous content. Prior to the 1934 Hays 
Code2, which placed restrictions on “indecent” content in movies, films featured erotic 
dances, male and female nudity, references to homosexuality, and sexual violence.

11 In the 1960s, when the sexual revolution led to increasingly permissive attitudes 
toward sexuality in American culture, the Hays Code was replaced with the MPAA 
rating system3, with ratings such as G, PG, and R. The rating system, designed to 
warn parents about potentially objectionable material in films, allowed filmmakers to 
include sexually explicit content without fear of public protest. Since the replacement 
of the Hays Code, sexual content has been featured in movies with much greater 
frequency.

12 The problem, according to many media critics, is not that sex now appears more 
often, but that it is almost always portrayed unrealistically in American mass media. 
This can be harmful, they say, because the mass media are important socialization 
agents; that is, ways that people learn about the norms, expectations, and values of 

2 the Hays Code: the Motion Picture Production Code, or the Hays Code, was established to censor American 
filmmakers and bring some decency back into Hollywood and it coincided with Hollywood’s Golden Age. This 
set of censorship rules changed the film industry for decades and eventually laid the groundwork for the current 
system.

3 the MPAA rating system: a system which attempts to rate a movie based on its content, helping patrons decide 
which movies may be appropriate for children of different ages. It was created and regulated by the Motion Picture 
Association of America (MPAA).



their society. Sex, as many films, television shows, music videos, and song lyrics 
present, is frequent and casual. Rarely do these media point out the potential 
emotional and physical consequences of sexual behavior. According to one study, 
portrayals of sex that include possible risks like sexually transmitted diseases or 
pregnancy only occur in 15 percent of the sexually explicit material on television. 
Additionally, actors and models depicted in sexual relationships in the media are 
thinner, younger, and more attractive than the average adult.

13 Cultural critics have noted that sexually explicit themes in mass media are 
generally more widely accepted in European nations than they are in the United States. 
However, the increased concern and debates over censorship of sexual content in the 
United States may in fact be linked to the way sex is portrayed in American media 
rather than to the presence of the sexual content in and of itself. Unrealistic portrayals 
that fail to take into account the actual complexity of sexual relationships seem to be 
a primary concern. As Jean Kilbourne has argued, sex in the American media “has 
far more to do with trivializing sex than with promoting it. We are offered a pseudo-
sexuality that makes it far more difficult to discover our own unique and authentic 
sexuality.” However, despite these criticisms, it is likely that unrealistic portrayals of 
sexual content will continue to be the norm in mass media unless the general public 
stops consuming these images.

(1,740 words)


Words and Expressions

blemish /.blem../ n. a small mark, especially a mark on someone’s skin or on 
the surface of an object, that spoils its appearance

boycott /.b..k.t/ n. the act of refusing to buy something, use something, or 
take part in something as a way of protesting

clad /kl.d/ adj. wearing a particular kind of clothing

counterpart /.ka.nt.pɑ.t/ n. someone or something that has the same job or purpose 
as someone or something else in a different place

disseminate /d..sem.ne.t/ vt. to spread information or ideas to as many people as 
possible

grapple /.ɡr.p.l/ vt. to fight or struggle with someone, holding them tightly

imperative /.m.per.t.v/ n. something that must be done urgently

inundate /..n.nde.t/ vt. to cover an area with a large amount of water

objectionable /.b.d.ek..n.b.l/ adj. unpleasant and likely to offend people



Discuss the following questions.

1. Can you define the word “stereotype”? What is still shown as the standard in 
American mass media?

2. What is your understanding of minority exclusion and minority underrepresentation 
in American mass media?

3. What is the consequence of male gaze when it comes to femininity in American 
mass media?

4. If the prevalence of sex is not the major problem in American mass media, then 
what is the major problem?

Reflective Work

1. Among the various functions of mass communication, which one plays the 
most essential role based on your understanding?

2. Books, as a vital medium in mass communication, greatly affect public value. 
Can you list some examples of stereotypes from English or American novels?

3. Can you think of any effective measures to promote the healthy development 
of mass media?

provocative /pr..v.k.t.v/ adj. intended to make someone sexually excited

pseudo- /.sju.d../ prefix. false or not real

regressive /r..ɡres.v/ adj. returning to an earlier, less advanced state

replicate /.repl.ke.t/ vt. to do something again, or try to get the same result again

scantily /.sk.nt.li/ adv. not enough

surefire /....fa../ adj. certain to succeed


Exercises

Discussion and Exploration



Intercultural Thinking

1. There is no denying that mass communication enhances human civilization 
in every possible aspect, yet according to Henry David Thoreau (an American 
essayist), men have become the tools of their tools. As a university student 
living in modern China, to what extent do you agree with his words?

2. Does any show or movie you have watched in Chinese mass media feature any 
sexual content? If so, do you think the content is gratuitous or unrealistic, or 
does it serve the story?

3. Can mass media values be human values? Choose your standpoint and share 
your evidence based on your personal experiences in China.

Further Reading

1

 
Title Understanding Mass Media and Mass Communication

 Summary “Mass media” refer to the technologies used as channels for a 
small group of people to communicate with a larger number of people. 
There are new forms added to traditional forms since the concept was 
first addressed in the 1920s. This article explains how mass media are 
related with mass communication, and how to measure the effects of mass 
media. It makes a brief introduction to mass self-communication and 
computer-mediated communication and their features as well. This article 
also demonstrates how media and mass media are related with politics.

2

 
Title Grounding Theories of Mass Communication

 Summary This article gives an account of the importance of knowing 
some basic theories of mass communication and makes an introduction 
to five fundamental ones, including the magic bullet theory, two-step 
flow theory, multi-step flow theory, uses and gratification theory, and 
cultivation theory.



Education

Unit



Introduction

Education is indispensable to the individuals and the society, for without it there 
would be loss of all the accumulated knowledge of the ages and all the standards 
of conduct. An individual must learn the culture of the society or the accepted ways 
of doing things, must be socialized into the prevailing culture and learn the rules of 
conduct and expectations about future behaviors. Society, therefore, consciously devices 
its instructional programs to fulfill personal and social needs rather than leaving the 
learning to change by itself. Education provides a conscious teaching program that helps 
to inculcate values, norms and social skills that will enable the individuals to develop a 
sound personality and sustain the social system.

1

 In your opinion, what are the functions of education for the individuals and the 
society respectively?

2

 In addition to the school, what other places can perform educational function? Can 
school education happen in these places?

3

 According to your understanding, how do education and society influence each 
other?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks


146

综合英语



A

Text

Education as a


Social Function

John Dewey

1 The school as a special environment. The chief importance of this foregoing 
statement of the educative process which goes on willy-nilly is to lead us to note that 
the only way in which adults consciously control the kind of education which the 
immature get is by controlling the environment in which they act, and hence think 
and feel. We never educate directly, but indirectly by means of the environment. 
Whether we permit chance environments to do the work, or whether we design 
environments for the purpose makes a great difference. And any environment is a 
chance environment so far as its educative influence is concerned unless it has been 
deliberately regulated with reference to its educative effect. An intelligent home differs 
from an unintelligent one chiefly in that the habits of life and intercourse which prevail 
are chosen, or at least colored, by the thought of their bearing upon the development 
of children. But schools remain, of course, the typical instance of environments 
framed with express reference to influencing the mental and moral disposition of their 
members.

2 Roughly speaking, they come into existence when social traditions are so complex 
that a considerable part of the social store is committed to writing and transmitted 
through written symbols. Written symbols are even more artificial or conventional 
than spoken; they cannot be picked up in accidental intercourse with others. In 
addition, the written form tends to select and record matters which are comparatively 
foreign to everyday life. The achievements accumulated from generation to generation 
are deposited in it even though some of them have fallen temporarily out of use. 



Consequently as soon as a community depends to any considerable extent upon what 
lies beyond its own territory and its own immediate generation, it must rely upon 
the set agency of schools to insure adequate transmission of all its resources. To take 
an obvious illustration, the life of the ancient Greeks and Romans has profoundly 
influenced our own, and yet the ways in which they affect us do not present themselves 
on the surface of our ordinary experiences. In similar fashion, peoples still existing, 
but remote in space, British, Germans, Italians, directly concern our own social affairs, 
but the nature of the interaction cannot be understood without explicit statement and 
attention. In precisely similar fashion, our daily associations cannot be trusted to make 
clear to the young the part played in our activities by remote physical energies, and by 
invisible structures. Hence a special mode of social intercourse is instituted, the school, 
to care for such matters.

3 This mode of association has three functions sufficiently specific, as compared 
with ordinary associations of life, to be noted. First, a complex civilization is too 
complex to be assimilated in toto. It has to be broken up into portions, as it were, and 
assimilated piecemeal, in a gradual and graded way. The relationships of our present 
social life are so numerous and so interwoven that a child placed in the most favorable 
position could not readily share in many of the most important of them. Not sharing 
in them, their meaning would not be communicated to him, would not become a 
part of his own mental disposition. There would be no seeing the trees because of the 
forest. Business, politics, art, science and religion would make all at once a clamor 
for attention; confusion would be the outcome. The first office of the social organ we 
call the school is to provide a simplified environment. It selects the features which are 
fairly fundamental and capable of being responded to by the young. Then it establishes 
a progressive order, using the factors first acquired as means of gaining insight into 
what is more complicated.

4 In the second place, it is the business of the school environment to eliminate, so 
far as possible, the unworthy features of the existing environment from influence upon 
mental habitudes. It establishes a purified medium of action. Selection aims not only 
at simplifying but at weeding out what is undesirable. Every society gets encumbered 
with what is trivial, with dead wood from the past, and with what is positively 
perverse. The school has the duty of omitting such things from the environment 
which it supplies, and thereby doing what it can to counteract their influence in the 
ordinary social environment. By selecting the best for its exclusive use, it strives to 
reinforce the power of this best. As a society becomes more enlightened, it realizes that 
it is responsible not to transmit and conserve the whole of its existing achievements, 
but only such as make for a better future society. The school is its chief agency for the 
accomplishment of this end.



5 In the third place, it is the office of the school environment to balance the various 
elements in the social environment, and to see to it that each individual gets an 
opportunity to escape from the limitations of the social group in which he was born, 
and to come into living contact with a broader environment. Such words as “society” 
and “community” are likely to be misleading, for they have a tendency to make us 
think there is a single thing corresponding to the single word. As a matter of fact, a 
modern society is many societies more or less loosely connected. Each household 
with its immediate extension of friends makes a society; the village or street group 
of playmates is a community; each business group, each club, is another. Passing 
beyond these more intimate groups, there is in a country like our own a variety of 
races, religious affiliations, economic divisions. Inside the modern city, in spite of its 
nominal political unity, there are probably more communities, more differing customs, 
traditions, aspirations, and forms of government or control, than existed in an entire 
continent at an earlier epoch.

6 Each such group exercises a formative influence on the active dispositions of its 
members. A clique, a club, a gang, a Fagin’s1 household of thieves and the prisoners 
in a jail provide educative environments for those who enter into their collective or 
conjoint activities, as truly as a church, a labor union, a business partnership, or a 
political party. Each of them is a mode of associated or community life, quite as much 
as is a family, a town, or a state. There are also communities whose members have little 
or no direct contact with one another, like the guild of artists, the republic of letters, 
the members of the professional learned class scattered over the face of the earth. For 
they have aims in common, and the activity of each member is directly modified by 
knowledge of what others are doing.

7 In the olden times, the diversity of groups was largely a geographical matter. There 
were many societies, but each, within its own territory, was comparatively homogeneous. 
But with the development of commerce, transportation, intercommunication, and 
emigration, countries like the United States are composed of a combination of different 
groups with different traditional customs. It is this situation which has, perhaps more 
than any other one cause, forced the demand for an educational institution which shall 
provide something like a homogeneous and balanced environment for the young. 
Only in this way can the centrifugal forces set up by juxtaposition of different groups 
within one and the same political unit be counteracted. The intermingling in the 
school of youth of different races, differing religions, and unlike customs creates for all 
a new and broader environment. Common subject matter accustoms all to a unity of 


1 Fagin: a fictional character, one of the villains in Charles Dickens’s novel Oliver Twist and one of the most notorious 
anti-semitic portraits in English literature. Fagin is an old man in London who teaches young homeless boys how to 
be pickpockets and then fences their stolen goods. At the novel’s end, Fagin is executed for complicity in a murder.



outlook upon a broader horizon than is visible to the members of any group while it is 
isolated. The assimilative force of the American public school is eloquent testimony to 
the efficacy of the common and balanced appeal.

8 The school has the function also of coordinating within the disposition of each 
individual the diverse influences of the various social environments into which he 
enters. One code prevails in the family; another, on the street; a third, in the workshop 
or store; a fourth, in the religious association. As a person passes from one of the 
environments to another, he is subjected to antagonistic pulls, and is in danger of 
being split into a being having different standards of judgment and emotion for 
different occasions. This danger imposes upon the school a steadying and integrating 
office.

(1,386 words)

affiliation /..f.li.e...n/ n. the connection or involvement that someone or something 
has with a political, religious, etc. organization 

agency /.e.d..nsi/ n. a business that provides a particular service for people 
or organizations 

antagonistic /.n.t.ɡ..n.st.k/ adj. unfriendly; wanting to argue or disagree 

aspiration /..sp..re...n/ n. a strong desire to have or achieve something 

bearing /.be.r../ n. relation; relevance

centrifugal /.sentr..fju.ɡ.l/ adj. acting, moving, or tending to move away from the centre

clamor /.kl.m./ n. the expression of feelings of anger and shock by a large 
number of people, used especially in news reports 

clique /kli.k/ n. a small group of people who think they are special and 
do not want other people to join them, used to show 
disapproval 

conserve /k.n.s..v/ vt. to protect something and prevent it from changing or 
being damaged 

counteract /.ka.nt.r..kt/ vt. to reduce or prevent the bad effect of something, by 
doing something that has the opposite effect 

disposition /.d.sp..z...n/ n. a particular type of character which makes someone 
likely to behave or react in a certain way 

efficacy /.ef.k.si/ n. the ability of something to produce the right result 

eloquent /.el.kw.nt/ adj. able to express your ideas and opinions well, especially 
in a way that influences people 


Words and Expressions



encumber /.n.k.mb./ vt. to make it difficult for you to do something or for 
something to happen 

enlightened /.n.la.t.nd/ adj. having sensible modern views and treating people fairly 
and kindly 

epoch /.i.p.k/ n. a period of history 

fashion /.f...n/ n. a manner of doing something 

geographical /.d.i...ɡr.f.k.l/ adj. relating to the place in an area, country, etc. where 
something or someone is 

guild /ɡ.ld/ n. an organization of people who do the same job or have 
the same interests 

homogeneous /.h..m..d.i.ni.s/ adj. consisting of people or things that are all of the same 
type 

intermingle /..nt..m..ɡ.l/ vt. & vi. to mix together or mix something with something else 

interweave /..nt..wi.v/ vt. to closely relate or combine with each other in a complicated 
way

juxtaposition /.d..kst.p..z...n/ n. the way of putting things together, especially things that 
are not normally together, in order to compare them or 
to make something new 

perverse /p..v..s/ adj. behaving in an unreasonable way, especially by 
deliberately doing the opposite of what people want you 
to do 

reinforce /.ri..n.f..s/ vt. to give support to an opinion, idea, or feeling, and make 
it stronger 

strive /stra.v/ vi. to make a great effort to achieve something 

territory /.ter.t.ri/ n. land that is owned or controlled by a particular country, 
ruler, or military force 

testimony /.test.m.ni/ n. a fact or situation that shows or proves very clearly that 
something exists or is true 

toto /.t..t../ n. total; entirety; completion

weed /wi.d/ vi. to remove unwanted plants from a garden or other place 

willy-nilly /.w.li .n.li/ adv. whether wanted or not



Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. The text tells how the school eliminates negative influences and promotes 
positive influences of the society.

b. The text tells how the school teaches civilization as a whole to students.

c. The text discusses the major social functions of the school as a special 
environment.

d. The text tells how the school coordinates within the disposition of each 
individual the diverse influences of the various social environments into which 
he/she enters.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. Education can only be conducted in an indirect way, which is by 
means of environment.

2. The acquisition of written symbols always requires the learners’ 
conscious efforts, while this can be a totally different case for 
acquiring spoken symbols.

3. Schools can be distinguished from ordinary associations of life in 
three specific functions.

4. Our present social life includes so numerous and interwoven 
relationships that only children with extraordinary family 
background can have access to the most important part of them.

5. Schools have the right to leave behind those existing achievements 
which cannot make for a better society, and only select the best.

6. A modern society can be a combination of various small societies 
or communities in which people are closely connected with each 
other.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. What is the difference between an intelligent home and an unintelligent home?


Exercises

T F



2. Roughly speaking, in what conditions did schools come into existence?

3. What is the difference between written symbols and spoken symbols?

4. What are the three specific functions of schools, as compared with ordinary 
associations of life?

5. How shall we understand the assimilative force of schools?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. And any environment is a chance environment so far as its educative influence 
is concerned unless it has been deliberately regulated with reference to its 
educative effect. (Para. 1)

2. Consequently as soon as a community depends to any considerable extent 
upon what lies beyond its own territory and its own immediate generation, it 
must rely upon the set agency of schools to insure adequate transmission of all 
its resources. (Para. 2)

3. In precisely similar fashion, our daily associations cannot be trusted to make 
clear to the young the part played in our activities by remote physical energies, 
and by invisible structures. (Para. 2)

4. Every society gets encumbered with what is trivial, with dead wood from the 
past, and with what is positively perverse. (Para. 4)

5. Only in this way can the centrifugal forces set up by juxtaposition of different 
groups within one and the same political unit be counteracted. (Para. 7)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. What are the values of written symbols and spoken symbols in respect of 
cultural development?

2. To what extent do you agree that the school is a simplified environment of our 
society?

3. How can individuals escape from the limitations of the social group in which 
he was born by receiving school education?



Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence. Change 
the form if necessary.

prevail bearing territory assimilate counteract
reinforce efficacy testimony strive aspiration

1. My father’s achievements really don’t have any ________________ on what I do.

2. My husband has to take several pills to ________________ high blood pressure.

3. It is hard for logic to ________________ over emotion.

4. Young Edison has a strong ________________ to be an inventor.

5. The government denies that any of its ________________ is under rebel control.

6. Recent medical studies confirm the ________________ of a healthier lifestyle.

7. This technology brings life to instruction and eases ________________ of 
knowledge.

8. Mr. Annan said the region must now ________________ for economic development 
as well as peace.

9. The next few months ________________ my opinion of Vince as a man of his word.

10. This book is ________________ to a very individual kind of courage.

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a word taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

exercise accumulate coordinate weed conserve
deposit modify isolate split transmit

1. The company said the debt was ________________ during its acquisition of nine 
individual businesses.

2. I ________________ my luggage in a locker at the station.

3. The information is ________________ electronically to the central computer.

4. The first round of interviews only really serves to ________________ out the very 
weakest of applicants.

5. I’m not being lazy—I’m just ________________ my energy for later.



6. I ________________ my democratic right by not voting in the election.

7. The proposals were unpopular and were only accepted in a(n) ________________ form.

8. A number of charities are ________________ their efforts to distribute food to the region.

9. A high wall ________________ the house from the rest of the village.

10. The childcare issue has ________________ the employers’ group.

 II. Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. The influx of immigrants and refugees into the small nation has transformed 
what was once a ________________ population.

 a. heterogeneous b. homogeneous c. mixed d. crowded

2. Rather than an international project being completed ________________ from afar, 
a portion of the project is undertaken locally.

 a. piece by piece b. right c. in toto d. exceptionally

3. Her ________________ discovery of the letters led to the publication of a most 
popular book.

 a. chance b. deviate c. possible d. necessary

4. Both sides were drawn, ________________, into a war neither of whom could afford.

 a. willingly b. arbitrarily c. randomly d. willy-nilly

5. The army’s advance was ________________ by the long and laggard supply lines.

 a. encumbered b. facilitated c. forced d. averted

6. Jack was being ________________ and refusing to agree with anything we said.

 a. obedient b. accommodating c. elastic d. perverse

7. However, an interdisciplinary approach, ________________ both anthropological 
methodologies and the ethnomusicological gaze, seems to generate the most 
fruitful analyses.

 a. dissociating b. intermingling c. brewing d. affiliating

8. Fortunately, common sense seems to have ________________ over irrationality.

 a. conquered b. abided c. prevailed d. outlasted

9. The /p/ sound in the word “grandpa” tends to ________________ the preceding /n/ 
sound so that /n/ becomes /m/.

 a. adjust b. assimilate c. swallow d. naturalize

10. Continual ________________ assessment of student understanding through 
observation, student questioning, and written assignments helps teachers 
decide how well students are doing.

 a. summative b. temporal c. peer d. formative



C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following paragraph into Chinese.

 It is this situation which has, perhaps more than any other one cause, 
forced the demand for an educational institution which shall provide 
something like a homogeneous and balanced environment for the young. Only 
in this way can the centrifugal forces set up by juxtaposition of different groups 
within one and the same political unit be counteracted. The intermingling in 
the school of youth of different races, differing religions, and unlike customs 
creates for all a new and broader environment. Common subject matter 
accustoms all to a unity of outlook upon a broader horizon than is visible to 
the members of any group while it is isolated. The assimilative force of the 
American public school is eloquent testimony to the efficacy of the common 
and balanced appeal.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 面临大量商品积压而导致的资金短缺，他们打算通过贷款来提供更多的流动资金。
（be means of）

2. 对于外国移民来说，文化问题是最大的问题，你不能指望移民能够马上融入外国文
化。（assimilate into）

3. 战争不能简单地归结于利益冲突，而应该用复杂的社会因素来解释。（with 
reference to）

4. 他说，政府仍然致力于和平，正在推动多个层次的谈判。（committed to）

5. 他常常对人心生嫉妒，但我相信嫉妒不是他的本性。（foreign to）

6. 我尊重医生的专业素养，但我不喜欢因为一点小毛病就去看医生。（trivial）

7. 我一直与他保持电话联系，但是我第一次见到他时，感觉他的容貌与我所听到的声
音完全相符。（correspond to）

8. 在这个国家的边境线上突然驻扎了一支神秘的军队，一个月后，才有报道说，这支
军队是由北约国家的部队组成的。（compose）

D

 Writing

Education is a major institution in most societies. It is difficult to imagine 
any industrialized or industrializing society without a system of schools. In your 
understanding, how should school education facilitate the modern society? Read 
extensively on the relationship between education and society, and write an essay with 
no less than 300 words to answer the question from different perspectives.



1 I have often thought of it as one of the most barbarous customs in the world, 
considering us as a civilized and a Christian country, that we deny the advantages of 
learning to women. We reproach the sex every day with folly and impertinence; while 
I am confident, had they the advantages of education equal to us, they would be guilty 
of less than ourselves.

2 One would wonder, indeed, how it should happen that women are conversible at 
all; since they are only beholden to natural parts, for all their knowledge. Their youth 
is spent to learn to stitch and sew or make baubles. They are taught to read, indeed, 
and perhaps to write their names, or so; and that is the height of a woman’s education. 
And I would but ask any who slight the sex for their understanding, what is a man 
(a gentleman, I mean) good for, that is taught no more? I need not give instances, or 
examine the character of a gentleman, with a good estate, or a good family, and with 
tolerable parts; and examine what figure he makes for want of education.

3 The soul is placed in the body like a rough diamond; and must be polished, or the 
lustre of it will never appear. And ’tis manifest, that as the rational soul distinguishes us 
from brutes; so education carries on the distinction, and makes some less brutish than 
others. This is too evident to need any demonstration. But why then should women be 
denied the benefit of instruction? If knowledge and understanding had been useless 
additions to the sex, GOD Almighty would never have given them capacities; for he 
made nothing needless. Besides, I would ask such, what they can see in ignorance, 
that they should think it a necessary ornament to a woman? Or how much worse is a 
wise woman than a fool? Or what has the woman done to forfeit the privilege of being 
taught? Does she plague us with her pride and impertinence? Why did we not let her 


B

Text

The Education


of Women

Daniel Defoe



learn, that she might have had more wit? Shall we upbraid women with folly, when ’tis 
only the error of this inhuman custom, that hindered them from being made wiser?

4 The capacities of women are supposed to be greater, and their senses quicker 
than those of the men; and what they might be capable of being bred to, is plain from 
some instances of female wit, which this age is not without. Which upbraids us with 
injustice, and looks as if we denied women the advantages of education, for fear they 
should vie with the men in their improvements…

5 [They] should be taught all sorts of breeding suitable both to their genius and 
quality. And in particular, music and dancing; which it would be cruelty to bar the sex 
of, because they are their darlings. But besides this, they should be taught languages, 
as particularly French and Italian: and I would venture the injury of giving a woman 
more tongues than one. They should, as a particular study, be taught all the graces 
of speech, and all the necessary air of conversation; which our common education is 
so defective in, that I need not expose it. They should be brought to read books, and 
especially history; and so to read as to make them understand the world, and be able 
to know and judge of things when they hear of them.

6 To such whose genius would lead them to it, I would deny no sort of learning; but 
the chief thing, in general, is to cultivate the understandings of the sex, that they may 
be capable of all sorts of conversation; that their parts and judgements being improved, 
they may be as profitable in their conversation as they are pleasant.

7 Women, in my observation, have little or no difference in them, but as they are or 
are not distinguished by education. Tempers, indeed, may in some degree influence 
them, but the main distinguishing part is their breeding.

8 The whole sex are generally quick and sharp. I believe, I may be allowed to say, 
generally so: for you rarely see them lumpish and heavy, when they are children; as 
boys will often be. If a woman be well bred, and taught the proper management of her 
natural wit, she proves generally very sensible and retentive.

9 And, without partiality, a woman of sense and manners is the finest and most 
delicate part of GOD’s Creation, the glory of her Maker, and the great instance of 
His singular regard to man, His darling creature: to whom He gave the best gift 
either GOD could bestow or man receive. And ’tis the sordidest piece of folly and 
ingratitude in the world, to withhold from the sex the due lustre which the advantages 
of education gives to the natural beauty of their minds.

10 A woman well bred and well taught, furnished with the additional 
accomplishments of knowledge and behaviour, is a creature without comparison. 



Her society is the emblem of sublimer enjoyments, her person is angelic, and her 
conversation heavenly. She is all softness and sweetness, peace, love, wit, and delight. 
She is every way suitable to the sublimest wish, and the man that has such a one to his 
portion, has nothing to do but to rejoice in her, and be thankful.

11 On the other hand, suppose her to be the very same woman, and rob her of the 
benefit of education, and it follows—

 If her temper be good, want of education makes her soft and easy.

 Her wit, for want of teaching, makes her impertinent and talkative.

 Her knowledge, for want of judgement and experience, makes her fanciful and 
whimsical.

 If her temper be bad, want of breeding makes her worse; and she grows 
haughty, insolent, and loud.

 If she be passionate, want of manners makes her a termagant and a scold, 
which is much at one with Lunatic.

 If she be proud, want of discretion (which still is breeding) makes her 
conceited, fantastic, and ridiculous.

 And from these she degenerates to be turbulent, clamorous, noisy, nasty, the 
devil!...

12 The great distinguishing difference, which is seen in the world between men 
and women, is in their education; and this is manifested by comparing it with the 
difference between one man or woman, and another.

13 And herein it is that I take upon me to make such a bold assertion, that all the 
world are mistaken in their practice about women. For I cannot think that GOD 
Almighty ever made them so delicate, so glorious creatures; and furnished them with 
such charms, so agreeable and so delightful to mankind; with souls capable of the 
same accomplishments with men: and all, to be only Stewards of our Houses, Cooks, 
and Slaves.

14 Not that I am for exalting the female government in the least: but, in short, I 
would have men take women for companions, and educate them to be fit for it. A 
woman of sense and breeding will scorn as much to encroach upon the prerogative 
of man, as a man of sense will scorn to oppress the weakness of the woman. But if the 
women’s souls were refined and improved by teaching, that word would be lost. To say, 
the weakness of the sex, as to judgment, would be nonsense; for ignorance and folly 
would be no more to be found among women than men.

15 I remember a passage, which I heard from a very fine woman. She had wit and 



capacity enough, an extraordinary shape and face, and a great fortune: but had been 
cloistered up all her time; and for fear of being stolen, had not had the liberty of being 
taught the common necessary knowledge of women’s affairs. And when she came to 
converse in the world, her natural wit made her so sensible of the want of education, 
that she gave this short reflection on herself: “I am ashamed to talk with my very 
maids,” says she, “for I don’t know when they do right or wrong. I had more need go to 
school, than be married.”

16 I need not enlarge on the loss the defect of education is to the sex; nor argue the 
benefit of the contrary practice. ’Tis a thing that will be more easily granted than 
remedied. This chapter is but an essay at the thing: and I refer the practice to those 
pappy days (if ever they shall be) when men shall be wise enough to mend it.

(1,416 words)

angelic /.n.d.el.k/ adj. looking good, kind, and gentle or behaving in this way 

barbarous /.bɑ.b.r.s/ adj. wild and not civilized 

bauble /.b..b.l/ n. a cheap piece of jewelry 

beholden /b..h..ldn/ adj. being under obligation for a favor or gift 

brute /bru.t/ n. a man who is cruel, violent, and not sensitive 

cloister /.kl..st./ vt. to seclude or shut up in a convent or monastery 

conceited /k.n.si.t.d/ adj. thinking oneself very clever, skillful, beautiful, etc. (used 
to show disapproval)

conversible /k.n.v..s.b.l/ adj. pleasant and easy to converse with 

defective /d..fekt.v/ adj. not made properly, or not working properly 

discretion /d..skre..n/ n. the ability to deal with situations in a way that does not 
offend, upset, or embarrass people or tell any of their 
secrets 

emblem /.embl.m/ n. something that represents an idea, principle, or situation 

folly /.f.li/ n. a very stupid thing to do, especially one that is likely to 
have serious results 

forfeit /.f..f.t/ vt. to lose a right, position, possession, etc. or have it taken 
away from you because you have broken a law or rule 

impertinence /.m'p.:t.n.ns/ n. behaviour that is rather impolite and disrespectful

ingratitude /.n.ɡr.t.tju.d/ n. the quality of not being grateful 


Words and Expressions



insolent /..ns.l.nt/ adj. rude and not showing any respect 

lumpish /.l.mp../ adj. heavy and awkward 

lustre /.l.st./ n. an attractive shiny appearance 

plague /ple.ɡ/ vt. to annoy someone, especially by asking for something 
many times or asking them many questions 

reproach /r..pr..t./ vt. to blame or criticize someone in a way that shows you 
are disappointed at what they have done 

retentive /r..tent.v/ adj. (memory or mind) able to hold facts and remember or 
retain things

sublime /s..bla.m/ adj. used to describe feelings or behaviour that are very 
great or extreme, especially when someone seems not 
to notice what is happening around them 

termagant /.t..m.ɡ.nt/ n. a woman who argues noisily to get or achieve what she 
wants 

turbulent /.t..bj.l.nt/ adj. with a lot of sudden changes 

venture /.vent../ vt. to say or do something in an uncertain way because you 
are afraid it is wrong or will seem stupid 

vie /va./ vi. to compete very hard with someone in order to get 
something 

whimsical /.w.mz.k.l/ adj. unusual or strange and often amusing

Discuss the following questions. 

1. What effects does education have on women, according to the author? 

2. In this essay Daniel Defoe appeals to a male audience that women should be 
allowed full and ready access to education. How does he develop his argument?

3. According to the author, in what areas/subjects should women be taught, and 
why?

4. According to the author, how will lack of education affect a woman? Do you 
agree with him?

5. What do you know about the situation of women’s education in Daniel Defoe’s 
time in England?


Exercises



Reflective Work

1. Read about the history of women’s education in China and Britain, and work 
in groups to compare the history and the status quo of women’s education in 
these two countries. 

2. In what ways can education make society better? Relate the question to China 
in the last century, and have a discussion with your fellows.

3. Education plays an extremely important role in our life and have huge 
impacts on the society in different ways. Meanwhile, society affects education 
immensely, which is usually ignored somehow. In what ways can society 
influence education? Have a discussion with your fellows and make a list of the 
influences of society on education.

Intercultural Thinking

 émile Durkheim, a French classical sociologist, was one of the first 
sociologists to consider the social function of education. He believed that moral 
education was necessary for society to exist because it provided the basis for 
the social solidarity that held society together. By writing about education in 
this way, Durkheim established the functionalist perspective on education. 
This perspective champions the work of socialization that takes place within 
the educational institution, including the teaching of society’s culture, moral 
values, ethics, politics, religious beliefs, habits, and norms. According to this 
view, the socializing function of education also serves to promote social control 
and to curb deviant behavior.

 Can you take China and another country as examples to illustrate the 
socializing function of education: how education there helps promote social 
control and curb “deviant” behaviors? Compare the two examples to find out 
their differences, and explain what cultural or ideological factors have caused 
the differences.

Discussion and Exploration



Further Reading

1

 
Title Schools and Society: A Sociological Approach to 

 Education

 Summary This comprehensive anthology features classical readings on 
the sociology of education, as well as current, original essays by notable 
contemporary scholars. Assigned as a main text or a supplement, this 
book uses the open-system approach to provide readers with a framework 
for understanding and analyzing the book’s range of topics.

2

 
Title Sociology of Education

 Summary Education as a process and an idea exists within a societal 
context. Whether formal or informal learning, education is organized 
in the society by individuals who are members of a particular group, 
community, states and nation. So, you understand the significance of the 
society in educational transactions and organizing curricular events. This 
book will deal with the sociology of education in details; and the relation 
between sociology and education.



Nature and 
Environment

Unit



Introduction

We are alerted from the news media almost everyday that the earth is suffering from 
biodiversity loss and climate change, both of which affect and threaten the life on the 
earth. Have you ever thought of what biodiversity is, how important it is, how it is in crisis 
and what we can do to save biodiversity? Text A provides you with abundant information 
and an alarming answer. Biodiversity in nature makes life possible, provides health and 
social benefits and drives our economy. However, natural ecosystems and their vital 
services are under pressure from urban sprawl, intensive agriculture, pollution, invasive 
species and climate change. Text B focuses on climate change from an objective, scientific 
viewpoint, discussing its causes and consequences and how it should be tackled.

1

 What is your opinion on the richness of biodiversity on the earth?

2

 Do you know the fact that the animals are decreasing in number and a lot of 
species become extinct each year? What causes this to happen? What should 
human beings do to stop this?

3

 What would the world be like if there were no other animals but human beings 
only?

4

 How do the animals in an ecosystem depend on each other? What’s their 
relationship with the environment? How are they affected by human activities?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks

165

Unit

Nature and Environment



A

Text

Biodiversity and Its

Importance to Us

Damian Carrington1

1 Biodiversity is the variety of life on the earth, in all its forms and all its 
interactions. If that sounds bewilderingly broad, that’s because it is. Biodiversity is the 
most complex feature of our planet and it is the most vital. “Without biodiversity, there 
is no future for humanity,” says Professor David Macdonald, at Oxford University.

2 The term was coined in 1985—a contraction of “biological diversity”—but the 
huge global biodiversity losses now becoming apparent represent a crisis equaling—or 
quite possibly surpassing—climate change. More formally, biodiversity is comprised 
of several levels, starting with genes, then individual species, then communities 
of creatures and finally entire ecosystems, such as forests or coral reefs, where life 
interplays with the physical environment. These myriad interactions have made the 
earth habitable for billions of years. A more philosophical way of viewing biodiversity 
is this: It represents the knowledge learned by evolving species over millions of years 
about how to survive through the vastly varying environmental conditions the earth 
has experienced.

3 For many people living in towns and cities, wildlife is often something you watch 
on television. But the reality is that the air you breathe, the water you drink and the 
food you eat all ultimately rely on biodiversity. Some examples are obvious: Without 
plants there would be no oxygen and without bees to pollinate there would be no 
fruit or nuts. Others are less obvious—coral reefs and mangrove swamps provide 


1 Damian Carrington: The Guardian’s Environment editor.



invaluable protection from cyclones and tsunamis for those living on coasts, while 
trees can absorb air pollution in urban areas. Others appear bizarre—tropical tortoises 
and spider monkeys seemingly have little to do with maintaining a stable climate. But 
the dense, hardwood trees that are most effective in removing carbon dioxide from 
the atmosphere rely on their seeds being dispersed by these large fruit-eaters. When 
scientists explore each ecosystem, they find countless such interactions, all honed by 
millions of years of evolution. If undamaged, this produces a finely balanced, healthy 
system which contributes to a healthy sustainable planet.

4 The sheer richness of biodiversity also has human benefits. Many new medicines 
are harvested from nature, such as a fungus that grows on the fur of sloths and can 
fight cancer. Wild varieties of domesticated animals and crops are also crucial as some 
will have already solved the challenge of, for example, coping with drought or salty 
soils. If money is a measure, the services provided by ecosystems are estimated to be 
worth trillions of dollars—double the world’s GDP. Biodiversity loss in Europe alone 
costs the continent about 3% of its GDP, or €450 million (￡400 million), a year.

5 From an aesthetic point of view, every one of the millions of species is unique, a 
natural work of art that cannot be recreated once lost. One feature of each ecosystem 
is its diversity. The simplest aspect to consider is species. About 1.7 million species of 
animals, plants and fungi have been recorded, but there are likely to be 8–9 million 
and possibly up to 100 million. The heartland of biodiversity is the tropics, which 
teems with species. In 15 hectares (37 acres) of Borneo forest, for example, there are 
700 species of tree—the same number as the whole of North America.

6 Recent work considering diversity at a genetic level has suggested that creatures 
thought to be a single species could in some cases actually be dozens. Then add in 
bacteria and viruses, and the number of distinct organisms may well be in the billions. 
A single spoonful of soil—which ultimately provides 90% of all food—contains 10,000 
to 50,000 different types of bacteria. The concern is that many species are being lost 
before we are even aware of them, or the role they play in the circle of life.

7 However, biodiversity is being threatened with a lot of creatures being extinct 
forever. The best studied creatures are the ones like us—large mammals. Tiger 
numbers, for example, have plunged by 97% in the last century. In many places, 
bigger animals have already been wiped out by humans—think about dodos or woolly 
mammoths. The extinction rate of species is now thought to be about 1,000 times 
higher than before humans dominated the planet, which may be even faster than the 
losses after a giant meteorite wiped out the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. The sixth mass 
extinction in geological history has already begun, according to some scientists. Lack 



of data means the “red list”, produced by the International Union for Conservation 
of Nature2, has only assessed 5% of known species. But for the best-known groups it 
finds many are threatened: 25% of mammals, 41% of amphibians and 13% of birds.

8 Species extinction provides a clear but narrow window on the destruction of 
biodiversity—it is the disappearance of the last member of a group that is by definition 
rare. But new studies are examining the drop in the total number of animals, capturing 
the plight of the world’s most common creatures. The results are scary. Billions of 
individual populations have been lost all over the planet, with the number of animals 
living on the earth having plunged by half since 1970. Abandoning the normally sober 
tone of scientific papers, researchers call the massive loss of wildlife a “biological 
annihilation” representing a “frightening assault on the foundations of human 
civilization”.

9 Humans may lack gills but that has not protected marine life. The situation is no 
better—and perhaps even less understood—in the two-thirds of the planet covered by 
oceans. Seafood is the critical source of protein for more than 2.5 billion people but 
rampant overfishing has caused catches to fall steadily since their peak in 1996 and 
now more than half of the ocean is industrially fished.

10 More than 95% of known species lack a backbone—there are about as many 
species in the staphylinidae family of beetles alone as there are total vertebrates, such 
as mammals, fish and birds. Altogether, there are at least a million species of insect 
and another 300,000 spiders, molluscs and crustaceans. But the recent revelation that 
75% of flying insects were lost in the last 25 years in Germany—and likely elsewhere—
indicates the massacre of biodiversity is not sparing creepy-crawlies. And insects really 
matter, not just as pollinators but as predators of pests, decomposers of waste and, 
crucially, as the base of the many wild food chains that support ecosystems. “If we 
lose the insects then everything is going to collapse,” says Professor Dave Goulson of 
Sussex University, U.K. “We are currently on course for ecological Armageddon.”

11 Even much-loathed parasites are important. One-third could be wiped out by 
climate change, making them among the most threatened groups on the earth. But 
scientists warn this could destabilize ecosystems, unleashing unpredictable invasions 
of surviving parasites into new areas.

12 Biodiversity is being threatened largely because of human activity, particularly as 
the human population rises and wild areas are razed to create farmland, housing and 


2 the International Union for Conservation of Nature: IUCN, created in 1948, a membership union uniquely 
composed of both government and civil society organizations, has evolved into the world’s largest and most 
diverse environmental network.



industrial sites. The felling of forests is often the first step and 30 million hectares—the 
area of the Britain and Ireland—were lost globally in 2016. Poaching and unsustainable 
hunting for food is another major factor. More than 300 mammal species, from 
chimpanzees to hippos to bats, are being eaten into extinction.

13 Pollution is a killer too, with orcas and dolphins being seriously harmed by long-
lived industrial pollutants. Global trade contributes further harm: Amphibians have 
suffered one of the greatest declines of all animals due to a fungal disease thought to 
be spread around the world by the pet trade. Global shipping has also spread highly 
damaging invasive species around the planet, particularly rats. The hardest hit of 
all habitats may be rivers and lakes, with freshwater animal populations in these 
collapsing by 81% since 1970, following huge water extraction for farms and people, 
plus pollution and dams.

14 The loss of biodiversity3 poses a greater threat to humanity than climate change. 
Nothing on the earth is experiencing more dramatic changes at the hands of human 
activities. Changes to the climate are reversible, even if that takes centuries or 
millennia. But once species become extinct, particularly those unknown to science, 
there’s no going back.

15 What can be done to stop the loss of biodiversity? Giving nature space and 
protection it needs is the only answer. Wildlife reserves are the obvious solution, and 
the world currently protects 15% of land and 7% of the oceans. But some argue that 
half of the land surface must be set aside for nature.

16 However, the human population is rising and wildlife reserves don’t work if they 
hinder local people making a living. The poaching crisis for elephants and rhinos in 
Africa is an extreme example. Making the animals worth more alive than dead is the 
key, for example by supporting tourism or compensating farmers for livestock killed 
by wild predators. But it can lead to tough choices. “Trophy hunting”4 for big game is 
anathema for many. But if the shoots are done sustainably—only killing old lions, for 
example—and the money raised protects a large swath of land, should it be permitted?

17 We can all help. Most wildlife is destroyed by land being cleared for cattle, soy, palm 
oil, timber and leather. Most of us consume these products every day, with palm oil 

3 the loss of biodiversity: also called biodiversity loss, a decrease in biodiversity within a species, an ecosystem, 
a given geographic area, or the earth as a whole. It describes the decline in the number, genetic variability, and 
variety of species, and the biological communities in a given area.

4 trophy hunting: refers to the game of hunting for pleasure. According to the hunters, the trophy refers to the part 
of the animal such as the head, skin, and horns that are kept as proof of their hunting victories. In Africa, trophy 
hunting is legal in most countries. However, there are restrictions that accompany the sport such as when to hunt, 
weapons that can be used, and the animals to be hunted.



being found in many foods and toiletries. Choosing only sustainable options helps, as 
does eating less meat, particularly beef, which has an outsized environmental hoofprint.

18 Another approach is to highlight the value of biodiversity by estimating the 
financial value of the ecosystem services provided as “natural capital”. Sometimes this 
can lead to real savings. Over the last 20 years, New York has spent $2 billion protecting 
the natural watershed that supplies the city with clean water. It has worked so well that 
90% of the water needs no further filtering: Building a water treatment plant instead 
would have cost $10 billion.

19 Locating the tipping point that moves biodiversity loss into ecological collapse is 
an urgent priority. Biodiversity is vast and research funds are small, but speeding up 
analysis might help, from automatically identifying creatures using machine learning 
to real-time DNA sequencing.

20 There is even an initiative that aims to create an open-source genetic database for 
all plants, animals and single-cell organisms on the planet. It argues that by creating 
commercial opportunities, such as self-driving car algorithms inspired by Amazonian 
ants, it could provide the incentive to preserve the earth’s biodiversity.

21 However, some researchers say the dire state of biodiversity is already clear 
enough and that the missing ingredient is political will. A global treaty, the Convention 
on Biological Diversity (CBD)5, has set many targets. Some are likely to be reached, 
for example protecting 17% of all land and 10% of the oceans by 2020. Others, such 
as making all fishing sustainable by the same date, are not. The 196 nations that are 
members of the CBD next meet in Egypt in November. In his 1985 text, Professor E. O. 
Wilson concluded: “This being the only living world we are ever likely to know, let us 
join to make the most of it.” That call is more urgent than ever.

(1,861 words)

algorithm /'.lɡ.r.e.m/ n. a set of instructions that are followed in a fixed order 
and used for solving a mathematical problem, making a 
computer program 


Words and Expressions

5 the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, a multilateral 
treaty, has three main goals including: the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use 
of its components; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.



amphibian /.m'f.bi.n/ n. an animal such as a frog that can live both on land and 
in water

anathema /.'n.θ.m./ n. a thing or an idea which you hate because it is the 
opposite of what you believe 

armageddon /.ɑ.m.'ɡedn/ n. a terrible battle that will destroy the world 

bizarre /b.'zɑ./ adj. very unusual or strange 

coral /'k.r.l/ n. a hard red, white, or pink substance fomed from the 
bones of very small sea creatures, which is often used 
to make jewellery

creepy-crawly /'kri.pi'kr..li/ n. an insect, especially one that you are frightened of 

crustacean /kr.'ste...n/ n. an animal such as a lobster or a crab that has a hard 
outer-shell and several pairs of legs, and usually lives in 
water

cyclone /'sa.kl..n/ n. a very strong wind that moves very fast in a circle 

decomposer /.di.k.m'p..z./ n. an organism, especially a soil bacterium, fungus that 
decomposes organic material 

dodo /'d..d../ n. a large bird that was unable to fly and no longer exists

gill /ɡ.l/ n. one of the organs on the sides of a fish through which it 
breathes 

hone /h..n/ vt. to develop and improve something, especially a skill, 
over a period of time 

hoofprint /'hu.fpr.nt/ n. a visible impression on a surface made by the hoof of an 
animal 

incentive /.n'sent.v/ n. something that encourages you to work harder, start a 
new activity, etc. 

mammoth /'m.m.θ/ n. any of numerous extinct elephants widely distributed 
in the pleistocene, extremely large with hairy coats and 
long up curved task

mangrove /'m..ɡr..v/ n. a tropical tree that grows in or near water and grows 
new roots from its branches

massacre /'m.s.k./ n. a case/an event in which a lot of people are killed violently, 
especially people who cannot defend themselves 

meteorite /'mi.ti.ra.t/ n. a piece of rock or metal from space that has landed on 
the earth 

millennia /m.'leni./ n. a period of 1,000 years 

mollusc /'m.l.sk/ n. a type of sea or land animal that has a soft body covered 
by a hard shell 

myriad /'m.ri.d/ adj. an extremely large number of 

orca /'..k./ n. a predatory black-and-white toothed whale with large 
dorsal fin 

parasite /'p.r.sa.t/ n. a plant or animal that lives on or in another plant or 
animal and gets food from it 



poach /p..t./ vt. to illegally catch or shoot animals, birds, or fish, 
especially on private land without permission 

pollinate /'p.l.ne.t/ vt. to give a flower or plant pollen so that it can produce 
seeds 

rampant /'r.mp.nt/ adj. (of something bad) existing or spreading everywhere in a 
way that cannot be controlled 

raze /re.z/ vt. to completely destroy a town or building 

reef /ri.f/ n. a line of sharp rocks, often made of coral, or a raised 
area of sand near the surface of the sea 

sloth /sl..θ/ n. an animal in Central and South America that moves very 
slowly, has grey fur, and lives in trees; the bad habit of 
being lazy and unwilling to work 

staphylinidae /.st.fi'l.n.di:/ n. a family of beetles consisting of the rove beetles

swath /sw.θ/ n. a long thin area of something, especially land 

trophy /'tr..fi/ n. something that you keep to prove your success in 
something, especially in war or hunting; a large object 
such as a silver cup or plate that someone receives as a 
prize for winning a competition

tsunami /tsu.'nɑ.mi/ n. a very large wave, caused by extreme conditions such 
as an earthquake, which can cause a lot of damage 
when it reaches land 

vertebrate /'v..t..bre.t/ n. a living creature that has a backbone

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. Biodiversity is important.

b. Biodiversity is being threatened.

c. What human beings can do to stop biodiversity loss.

d. All of the above.


Exercises



II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. Without biodiversity, there is no future for humanity.

2. The richness of biodiversity only benefits human beings.

3. One feature of each ecosystem is its diversity.

4. Biodiversity is being threatened largely because of human activities.

5. Climate change poses a greater threat to humanity than the loss of 
biodiversity.

6. Giving nature the space and protection it needs is not the only way 
to stop the loss of biodiversity.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. What does “humanity” mean in Para. 1?

2. How do you understand the word “window” in the sentence “Species extinction 
provides a clear but narrow window on the destruction of biodiversity” in Para. 8?

3. How do you understand “there’s no going back” in Para. 14?

4. What is the meaning of “natural capital” in Para. 18?

5. What is the meaning of “tipping point” in Para. 19?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. The heartland of biodiversity is the tropics, which teems with species. (Para. 5)

2. The loss of biodiversity poses a greater threat to humanity than climate change. 
(Para. 14)

3. Making the animals worth more alive than dead is the key, for example by 
supporting tourism or compensating farmers for livestock killed by wild 
predators. (Para. 16)

4. Locating the tipping point that moves biodiversity loss into ecological collapse 
is an urgent priority. (Para. 19)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. What is biodiversity?

2. How does the richness of biodiversity benefit human beings?

3. How is biodiversity being threatened?

T F



4. Why does the loss of biodiversity pose a greater threat to humanity than 
climate change?

5. What can be done to stop the loss of biodiversity?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence. Change 
the form if necessary.

amphibian trophy poach massacre bizarre
millennia parasite myriad sloth raze

1. Time runs against the ________________ and those who neglect their rights.

2. Environmental issues affect every life on this planet from the smallest 
________________ to the human race.

3. His office was lined with animal heads, ________________ of his hunting hobby.

4. 300 civilians are believed to have been ________________ by the rebels.

5. There could scarcely be a less promising environment for a(n) ________________ 
than the desert.

6. An entire village was ________________ to build Central Park.

7. Almost everyone knows the painting, Mona Lisa, but not everyone knows of its 
________________ history.

8. The year 2000 saw over 36 million “________________ babies”, nearly doubling the 
number in 1999 and 2001.

9. Pandas face extinction because of ________________ and humans moving into 
their habitat.

10. Parents face a(n) ________________ of problems bringing up children.

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

set aside on course wipe out teem with
survive through make the most of contribute to interplay with
be comprised of pose a threat to



1. He ________________ college by studying hard and getting involved in many 
extracurricular activities.

2. The river ________________ rare fish and worth while preserving.

3. The study ________________ 126 children, aged 12 and under, from across the 
globe.

4. As far as he was concerned, any day that he ________________ to the end was a 
good day.

5. Some doctors advise ________________ a certain hour each day for worry.

6. Without wolves or other predators, many of which have ________________ by 
hunting, the number of deer in these regions has soared.

7. It is well known that the key factors of translating do interact and 
________________ each other.

8. Staying ________________ can keep you focused on what you need to do.

9. This meeting will ________________ the reinforcement of peace and security all 
over the world.

10. A developing and progressing China does not ________________ to anyone.

 II. Each of the following sentences contains one error. You are to find out 
the error and correct it.

1. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is likely higher than it is 
anytime in the past three million years.

2. Ozone depletion is not only related with skin cancer and eye problems, it 
destroys the ocean’s ecology.

3. The greenhouse effect indirectly threatens humanity and is not easily reversible.

4. Farming invariably interferes with habitats of plants and animals.

5. The sustainable cultivation of plants for food and feed actually enable us to 
preserve biodiversity.

6. Some land that is rich in biodiversity needs to preserve and thus should not be 
converted into arable land.

7. By 2050, global demand for food will rise by 70 percent.

8. More and more native plants disappear every year. Saving them is important 
because our own survival is bound up to their fate.

9. The study makes clear that air emission even at levels below those commonly 
held to be acceptable are potential hazards to the health of inner-city residents.

10. Many old residents in the neighborhood prefer stroll along the beach to sitting 
in front of the television.



C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. Species extinction provides a clear but narrow window on the destruction of 
biodiversity—it is the disappearance of the last member of a group that is by 
definition rare.

2. Billions of individual populations have been lost all over the planet, with the 
number of animals living on the earth having plunged by half since 1970.

3. The extinction rate of species is now thought to be about 1,000 times higher 
than before humans dominated the planet, which may be even faster than the 
losses after a giant meteorite wiped out the dinosaurs 65 million years ago.

4. Wild varieties of domesticated animals and crops are also crucial as some will 
have already solved the challenge of, for example, coping with drought or salty 
soils.

5. From an aesthetic point of view, every one of the millions of species is unique, 
a natural work of art that cannot be recreated once lost. One feature of each 
ecosystem is its diversity.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 入侵物种不但导致了经济困难，还对抑制贫困、保护粮食安全和生物多样性产生了
负面的影响。（contribute to）

2. 气候变化及周期性的厄尔尼诺现象引起的海水变暖，已经造成了大面积的珊瑚礁在
所谓的“漂白”事件中消失殆尽。（wipe out）

3. 地球的热带地区物种繁多，这里的生物种类远比地球上较寒冷的地方多得多。（teem 
with）

4. 森林被毁了还能长出来，空气和水被污染了还能被净化，但物种一旦灭绝就意味着
永远失去。（raze）

5. 全球变暖对北极熊等动物的生存造成了严重威胁。（pose a threat to）

D

 Writing

The world we are living in is characterized by biodiversity, which in turn makes 
the world more beautiful, lovely and worthwhile. However, human activities have been 
threatening biodiversity, affecting the quality of natural environment and our life. Write 
an essay with no less than 300 words to analyze how we are threatening biodiversity, 
and figure out what we should do to maintain biodiversity.



1 The planet’s climate has constantly been changing over geological time. The global 
average temperature today is about 15℃, though geological evidence suggests that it 
has been much higher and lower in the past. However, the current period of warming 
is occurring more rapidly than many past events. Scientists are concerned that the 
natural fluctuation, or variability, is being overtaken by a rapid human-induced 
warming that has serious implications for the stability of the planet’s climate.

2 Another phenomenon going hand in hand with climate change is the greenhouse 
effect. However, they are different. The greenhouse effect refers to the way the earth’s 
atmosphere traps some of the energy from the sun. Solar energy radiating back out 
to the space from the earth’s surface is absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases 
and re-emitted in all directions. The energy that radiates back down to the planet heats 
both the lower atmosphere and the surface. Without this effect, the earth would be 
about 30℃ colder, making our planet hostile to life.

3 Scientists believe we are adding to the natural greenhouse effect with gases 
released from industry and agriculture (known as emissions), trapping more energy 
and increasing the temperature. This is commonly referred to as global warming 
or climate change. The most important of these greenhouse gases in terms of its 
contribution to warming is water vapor, but concentrations show little change and it 
persists in the atmosphere for only a few days.

4 On the other hand, carbon dioxide (CO2) persists for much longer (it would take 
hundreds of years for it to return to pre-industrial levels). In addition, there is only so 
much CO2 that can be soaked up by natural reservoirs such as the oceans. Most man-


B

Text

Climate 

Change



made emissions of CO2 are through the burning of fossil fuels, as well as through 
cutting down carbon-absorbing forests. Other greenhouse gases such as methane and 
nitrous oxide are also released through human activities, but their overall abundance 
is small compared with carbon dioxide. Since the industrial revolution began in 1750, 
CO2 levels have risen by more than 30% and methane levels have risen by more than 
140%. The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is now higher than at any time in 
at least 800,000 years.

5 Temperature records going back to the late 19th century show that the average 
temperature of the earth’s surface has increased by about 0.8 ℃ (1.4 °F) in the last 100 
years. About 0.6 ℃ (1.0 °F) of this warming occurred in the last three decades. Satellite 
data shows an average increase in global sea levels of some 3 mm per year in recent 
decades. A large proportion of the change in sea level is accounted for by the thermal 
expansion of seawater. As seawater warms up, the molecules become less densely 
packed, causing an increase in the volume of the ocean.

 


6 But the melting of mountain glaciers and the retreat of polar ice sheets are also 
important contributors. Most glaciers in temperate regions of the world and along the 
Antarctic Peninsula are in retreat. Since 1979, satellite records have shown a dramatic 
decline in Arctic sea-ice extent, at an annual rate of 4% per decade. In 2012, the ice 
extent reached a record minimum that was 50% lower than the 1979–2000 average. 
The Greenland Ice Sheet has experienced record melting in recent years; if the entire 
2.8 million cu km sheet were to melt, it would raise sea levels by 6 m. Satellite data 
shows the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is also losing mass, and a recent study indicated 
that East Antarctica, which had displayed no clear warming or cooling trend, may also 
have started to lose mass in the last few years. But scientists are not expecting dramatic 
changes. In some places, mass may actually increase as warming temperatures drive 
the production of more snows.



7 The effects of a changing climate can also be seen in vegetation and land animals. 
These include earlier flowering and fruiting times for plants and changes in the 
territories (or ranges) occupied by animals.

8 In its 2013 assessment of the science, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 
Change (IPCC) forecast a range of possible scenarios based on computer modelling. 
But most simulations indicate that global surface temperature change by the end of 
the 21st century is likely to exceed 1.5℃, relative to 1850. A threshold of 2℃ had 
long been regarded as the gateway to dangerous warming. More recently, scientists 
and policy makers have argued that keeping temperature rise to within 1.5℃ is a 
safer limit for the world. An IPCC report in 2018 suggested that keeping to the 1.5℃ 
target would require “rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of 
society”.

9 Even if we cut greenhouse gas emissions dramatically now, scientists say the 
effects will continue because parts of the climate system, particularly large bodies of 
water and ice, can take hundreds of years to respond to changes in temperature. It also 
takes greenhouse gases decades to be removed from the atmosphere.

10 Climate change affects us a lot. There are varying degrees of uncertainty about 
the scale of potential impacts. But the changes could drive freshwater shortages, 
bring sweeping changes in food production conditions, and increase the number of 
deaths from floods, storms, heat waves and droughts. This is because climate change 
is expected to increase the frequency of extreme weather events, though linking any 
single event to global warming is complicated.

11 Scientists forecast more rainfall overall, but say the risk of drought in inland areas 
during hot summers will increase. More flooding is expected from storms and rising 
sea levels. There are, however, likely to be very strong regional variations in these 
patterns. Poorer countries, which are least equipped to deal with rapid change, could 
suffer the most.

12 Plant and animal extinctions are predicted as habitats change faster than species 
can adapt, and the World Health Organization (WHO) has warned that the health 
of millions could be threatened by increases in malaria, water-borne disease and 
malnutrition.

13 As an increased amount of CO2 is released into the atmosphere, there is increased 
uptake of CO2 by the oceans, and this leads to them becoming more acidic. This 
ongoing process of acidification could pose major problems for the world’s coral reefs, 
as the changes in chemistry prevent corals from forming a calcified skeleton, which is 



essential for their survival.

14 Computer models are used to study the dynamics of the earth’s climate and make 
projections about the future temperature change. But these climate models differ on 
“climate sensitivity”—the amount of warming or cooling that occurs as a particular 
factor, such as CO2 goes up or down. Models also differ in the way that they express 
“climate feedbacks”.

15 Global warming will cause some changes that look likely to create further heating, 
such as the release of large quantities of the greenhouse gas methane as permafrost 
(permanently frozen soil found mainly in the Arctic) melts. This is known as a positive 
climate feedback. But negative feedbacks exist that could offset warming. Various 
“reservoirs” on the earth absorb CO2 as part of the carbon cycle—the process through 
which carbon is exchanged between, for example, the oceans and the land.

16 It is important to be clear that climate change cannot be avoided. We can mitigate 
its effects and adapt to its consequences, i.e. we can fight it through the application of 
small- and large-scale measures that help to slow down climate change. These actions 
are known as climate change mitigation and adaptation measures.

17 Firstly, get informed. Knowledge is power—learn more about the science behind 
our climate challenge and the responsibility that all sectors hold in addressing the 
issue. Add your voice to the issues that are shaping the climate debate as well as 
emerging, evidence-based data that directly relates to changes in our climate.

18 Secondly, unplug to use energy more efficiently at home. Unplug items when they 
aren’t in use, by goods with high energy-efficient standards, and consider making the 
switch to renewable energy. All of these can help to reduce your personal impact.

19 Thirdly, travel smarter. Transportation is now the largest source of carbon 
emissions in the United States. No matter where you live, traveling by car or airplane 
contributes heavily to our shared carbon footprint. Take public transit, biking, or 
walking when possible—it’s good for your health, your wallet, and the planet.

20 Fourthly, save your food. Your food’s carbon footprint, called its foodprint, is the 
greenhouse gas emissions produced by growing, harvesting, processing, transporting, 
cooking, and disposing of the food we eat. Research has revealed the tremendous 
impact that the mass production of meat, dairy, and eggs has on our planet. Then 
food waste is an enormous “hidden” contributor to climate change. In fact, if global 
food waste were a country, it would be one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters. The 
carbon footprint of this wasted food is about 3.3 billion tons of CO2. Luckily, there 
has never been a better time to join efforts to reduce our carbon footprint through 



food choices. Enjoy more plant-based meals, reduce your food waste altogether, and 
compose your food scraps.

21 Fifthly, shop smarter. Do you know where money is going? Support companies 
driven by sustainability and committed to transparency throughout the supply chain. 
Your power as a consumer can be enormously impactful, so if you’re in the dark 
or unhappy with a company’s impact on the planet, make your voice known! Shop 
smarter with thoughtful purchasing to minimize waste, and consider reused and pre-
loved items to take part in the circular economy and keep goods out from filling our 
already overflowing landfills.

(1,643 words)


Words and Expressions

acidification /..s.d.f.'ke...n/ n. the process of becoming acid or being converted into 
an acid 

calcify /'k.ls.fa./ vt. to become hard, or make something hard, by adding 
lime 

carbon footprint n. the amount of carbon dioxide that a person or 
organization produces by the things they do, used as 
a way of measuring the amount of harm they do to the 
environment

concentration /.k.ns.n'tre...n/ n. a large amount of something in a particular place or 
among particular people 

fluctuation /.fl.kt.u'e...n/ n. a change in a price, amount, level, etc. 

landfill /'l.ndf.l/ n. a place where waste is buried under the ground 

malaria /m.'le.ri./ n. a disease that is common in hot countries and that you 
get when a type of mosquito bites you 

malnutrition /.m.lnj.'tr...n/ n. a poor condition of health caused by a lack of food or a 
lack of the right type of food 

mitigate /'m.t.ɡe.t/ vt. to make a situation or the effects of something less 
unpleasant, harmful, or serious 

nitrous oxide /.na.tr.s '.ksa.d/ n. a gas used by dentists to reduce pain 

offset /'.fset/ vt. to use one cost, payment or situation in order to cancel 
or reduce the effect of another 

permafrost /'p..m.fr.st/ n. a layer of soil that is always frozen in countries where it 
is very cold 

scenario /s.'nɑ.ri../ n. a description of how things might happen in the future; a 
written outline of what happens in a film/movie or play

/'kɑ.b.n .f.t.pr.nt/



Discuss the following questions. 

1. Have you ever heard people talk about that the earth’s climate or temperature 
has been changing in your daily life? What’s your opinion on this issue?

2. What is climate change? What is greenhouse effect? What’s the relationship 
between the two?

3. What are the effects of climate change?

4. What are the effects of global warming?

5. Can climate change be avoided? How can we mitigate the effects and adapt to 
the consequences of climate change?

Reflective Work

1. Do you think that climate change is only a natural process? Why do you think 
so?

2. What role are human activities playing in global warming? How does our 
lifestyle contribute to it? What should we do to stop it?

scrap /skr.p/ n. pieces of food that are left after you have finished eating 

simulation /.s.mj.'le...n/ n. the activity of producing conditions which are similar to 
real ones, especially in order to test something, or the 
conditions that are produced 

unplug /.n'pl.ɡ/ vt. to disconnect a piece of electrical equipment by pulling 
its plug out of a socket


Exercises

Discussion and Exploration



Intercultural Thinking

 According to statistics, 400 species of birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish 
have been listed in the Red Book of China’s Endangered Animals, and nearly 
2,000 species of wild animals and plants are endangered. With the sustained 
and rapid economic development and the deterioration of the ecological 
environment, the number of endangered species in China will increase. In your 
opinion, what can be done to protect the endangered species?

Further Reading

1

 
Title Global Climate Change

 Summary It provides expertise information about global climate change. 
The earth’s climate is now changing faster than at any point in the history 
of modern civilization, primarily as a result of human activities. Global 
climate change has already resulted in a wide range of impacts across 
every region of the country and many sectors of the economy that are 
expected to grow in the coming decades.

2

 
Title Climate Change: A Life Issue

 Summary The world’s most prestigious scientific bodies are in agreement 
that global warming is a reality caused primarily by human beings and that 
its consequences on our economy and environment will be far-reaching. In 
the short term, climate change will bring an increase in extreme weather 
events that threaten human populations and agricultural production. In 
the long term, the very viability of human civilization is at stake.

3

 
Title Climate Change and Health

 Summary Although global warming may bring some localized benefits, 
such as fewer winter deaths in temperate climates and increased food 
production in certain areas, the overall health effects of a changing climate 
are overwhelmingly negative. Climate change affects many of the social 
and environmental determinants of health—clean air, safe drinking water, 
sufficient food and secure shelter.



Business

Unit



Introduction

Introduction

As a special model and activity in the development of economy, the sharing 
economy has been attracting wide attention and generating constant discussions since 
its appearance in the 2010s. Also referred to as collaborative consumption or peer-to-
peer market, the sharing economy has come to involve more users and cover more fields. 
However, there are questions yet to be answered. What is the true nature of the sharing 
economy? What, besides financial reasons, motivates users to participate in the sharing 
economy? Where is the sharing economy leading us? Text A presents a discussion on the 
definition of the sharing economy and some examples of this economic activity, while 
Text B makes predictions about its growth and potentials.

1

 Do you know the origin of the sharing economy? What are the main characteristics 
of the sharing economy?

2

 What are the pros and cons of the sharing economy?

3

 What do you think will be the future of the sharing economy?

4

 What are the elements of building a sharing economy platform?

Pre-reading Tasks


185

Unit

Business



A

Text

What Is the

Sharing Economy?

1 As Fast Company contributor Rachael Botsman points out, the sharing economy 
has long lacked a shared definition, and it’s probably more accurate to break it into 
several related but distinct realms.

2 These realms form the wireframe of a highly flexible economic network. The 
network—we’ll call it the sharing economy, for simplicity—allows people to exchange 
tangible and intangible with one another at scale. These exchange relationships often 
undercut traditional retail or employment arrangements, generally by reducing 
transactional friction or looping middlemen out altogether.

3 You can now get an unsecured personal loan directly from your peers, share the 
same office space with dozens of different companies, and stay at a stranger’s house 
instead of a hotel when you’re traveling out of town.

4 By making it easier to exchange resources on demand, the sharing economy 
increases efficiency. In many circumstances, it allows participants to get by without 
owning valuable items, such as cars, while creating opportunities for others to extract 
value from idle possessions or talents.

5 It wouldn’t be possible without technology. Virtually all forms of collaborative 
consumption use the Internet to connect providers with customers, whether they’re 
renting a house through Airbnb or looking for a place to board their dogs.

6 Anyone can participate in the sharing economy. In fact, whether you realize it or 



not, you probably already do. And, if you don’t yet, you probably will soon enough.

Peer-to-peer lending

7 Peer-to-peer lending platforms allow individuals to lend and borrow money 
without going through a traditional bank. Based on the borrower’s credit history, the 
interest rate is typically set by the platform, which acts as the intermediary between 
the two parties. However, the individual who lends the money bears the risk. Though 
the most common type of peer-to-peer loan is an unsecured personal loan, offered on 
such platforms as Lending Club and Prosper, platforms like SoFi offer student loans 
and mortgage refinancing loans as well.

8 Traditional institution-to-individual lending is not an option for many would-be 
borrowers. With more liberal lending standards than most traditional banks, peer-to-
peer lenders offer opportunities for a wider range of borrowers. Over time, this could 
compel banks to be more accommodating.

9 According to Sebastian C. Moenninghoff and Alex Wieandt, business experts at 
the Otto Beisheim School of Business, peer-to-peer lending is driven by the “emergence 
of the Internet, ongoing innovation by startup companies, and increasing financial 
regulation of traditional banks”.

10 Basically, technology makes it easier and safer for individuals who have money 
to find people who need money. Since the platforms themselves don’t have to worry 
about absorbing losses from failed loans, they can be much leaner than traditional 
banks.

11 Though this creates risk for individual lenders who lend via peer-to-peer 
platforms, it also allows them to put some of their capital to use without researching 
stocks and funds or settling for meager interest payments from a savings account. 
Also, it provides capital to borrowers who may not be able to find a traditional loan at 
an affordable rate (or at all) due to a shaky credit history or a stingy bank.

Crowdfunding

12 Like peer-to-peer lending, crowdfunding connects people who need money 
with those willing to provide it. On platforms such as Kickstarter and Indiegogo, 
entrepreneurs, artists, and others present startup or project ideas to a community 
of potential funders, and then set a target fundraising amount and date. Dozens, 
hundreds, or even thousands of individuals can contribute to a single campaign. This 
makes crowdfunding doubly potent as a top small business fundraising option and a 
brutally effective way to cut small business expenses.



13 However, unlike peer-to-peer lending, the recipients aren’t always expected 
to repay the funds. Some crowdfunding campaigns function like grants, where 
individual lenders give money with the understanding that they won’t get it back. 
(Recipients sometimes offer rewards, such as merchandise, to encourage this type of 
funding.)

14 Others are more like capital raising rounds, where startups or small businesses 
solicit investments (typically in minimal amounts) in exchange for equity in the 
company. This is known as equity crowdfunding, and it’s become far more common 
in recent years thanks to legislation such as the JOBS Act and regulations such as the 
SEC’s Regulation A+.

15 Traditional business financing can be difficult to attain, as can grants. However, 
crowdfunding may make it easier for businesses and projects to obtain financing. 
For banks with strict lending standards, many startups and even established small 
businesses are too risky. For creative types, using a crowdfunding platform is less time-
consuming—and offers a better shot at success—than applying for grants through 
government or nonprofit arts organizations.

16 And for those who contribute funds, the rewards can range from the emotional 
satisfaction of supporting something they care about, to an equity stake in a potentially 
successful venture.

Apartment/house renting and couch surfing

17 Apartment/house sharing platforms, such as Airbnb, Vrbo, and HomeExchange, 
connect homeowners with people who need a place to stay when they’re traveling. 
Hosts set the nightly price and specify available dates, typically when they’re not using 
the property. In preparation for a trip, visitors can browse accommodations in their 
destination and choose a place that fits their desired neighborhood, amenity needs, 
and budget.

18 Some platforms address the potential security issues of sharing your living space 
with a stranger by putting security protocols in place. For instance, Airbnb’s Verified 
ID program requires hosts and visitors to provide detailed information about their 
background before using the platform. Vrbo encourages owners to collect a deposit 
from renters and draw up a rental agreement that specifies the rules that renters must 
abide by (such as quiet hours and whether guests are allowed). However, due diligence 
still ultimately comes down to the homeowner to properly vet potential renters.

19 The traditional hospitality industry focuses on hotel rooms as opposed to entire 



suites, apartments, or homes. But these can be cramped and often lack amenities that 
make a longer stay more comfortable, such as a full kitchen. Previously, when you were 
in an unfamiliar place and needed a bed (or a couch) to sleep on, you had to check in at 
a hotel or motel. However, now you can find people willing to share their entire home 
and all the amenities that come with it—often at a lower cost than traditional lodging.

20 And if you want to explore the lesser known parts of a new town, platforms such 
as Airbnb offer you an opportunity to stay in neighborhoods far from touristy districts 
where hotels tend to cluster.

Ridesharing and carsharing

21 Ridesharing and carsharing offer some of the benefits of car ownership, such as 
easy access to a city without having to rely on public transit, with few of the drawbacks, 
such as paying for gas, insurance, and maintenance.

22 With apps like Uber and Lyft, you can hail a ride from drivers in their personal 
vehicles. With services like Car2Go and Zipcar, you can commandeer a shared vehicle, 
owned by a for-profit or nonprofit organization, and pay for the time you drive it. And 
with newer companies like GetAround, you can rent privately owned cars by the hour 
or day when their owners don’t need them.

23 Taxi and rental car companies have become antiquated. Ridesharing has forced 
these players to adopt technological solutions, such as smartphone apps, and may 
result in lower prices over time. Though taxis and rental car companies have been 
around almost as long as the automobile itself, the sharing economy dramatically 
undercuts their business model.

24 Depending on the location, rides with Uber, Lyft, and other ridesharing 
companies can cost half the amount of an identical taxi trip. Since carsharing 
companies like Car2Go and Zipcar mostly charge for the time (minutes or hours) and 
distance you drive, they’re much cheaper than rental car companies, which typically 
charge by the day. GetAround translates low overhead costs into savings, with rates 
starting at $5 per hour.

Coworking

25 Coworking lets you share the cost of office rent, utilities, storage, mail, and 
office supplies with other professionals. It’s particularly useful for freelancers, sole 
proprietors, and very small businesses that don’t have huge inventories requiring lots 
of storage space.



26 Many cities and university towns have at least one coworking hub, such as 
Minneapolis-St. Paul’s Fueled Collective, Chicago’s The Coop, and Austin’s Link 
Coworking. These facilities, stocked with coffee and connected to the outside world 
with phone lines and wifi connections, typically feature large, bullpen-style space with 
office suites, conference rooms, and common areas. You pay a weekly or monthly fee 
based on your space requirements and the amount of time you spend at the office.

27 Depending on the coworking hub’s policies, you may also need to pay for 
conference room time, storage lockers, P. O. boxes, and other perks. But these costs 
are likely to be significantly lower than what you’d pay for even a small office space, 
especially in the bustling districts where coworking hubs are usually found.

28 Traditional workplaces can be expensive, but coworking allows freelancers 
and solopreneurs to work in a dynamic office environment at relatively low cost. 
Coworking doesn’t just spread overhead costs among hundreds of workers in dozens 
of different fields—it’s also a social experience that puts people in close contact 
with professionals who have complementary talents. This makes forming mutually 
beneficial partnerships easier for all.

29 For instance, a lawyer I know by association (a one-woman operation focused on 
intellectual property issues) rents a desk at three Fueled Collective outlets in my area. 
She spends one day a week at each and generates the majority of her business through 
referrals and informal contacts there. She spends the other two weekdays at home or at 
a coffee shop, working furiously on projects for them. Until recently, a lawyer without 
an office was unheard of.

(1,612 words)

abide /..ba.d/ vi. & vt. to accept and obey a decision, rule, agreement, etc., 
even though you may not agree with it

amenity /..mi.n.ti/ n. something that makes a place comfortable or easy to 
live in

antiquated /..nt.kwe.t.d/ adj. old-fashioned and not suitable for modern needs or 
conditions, used to show disapproval

bustling /.b.s.l../ adj. very busy

collaborative /k..l.b.r.t.v/ adj. a collaborative project involves two or more people, 
companies, etc. working together in order to achieve 
something


Words and Expressions



commandeer /.k.m.n.d../ vt. to take someone else’s property for your own use, 
especially during a war

cramped /kr.mpt/ adj. unable to move properly and feeling uncomfortable 
because there is not enough space

dramatically /dr..m.t.kli/ adv. in a way that is intended to be impressive, so that 
people notice; in a great and sudden way

equity /.ekw.ti/ n. the capital that a company has from shares rather than 
from loans; (formal) a situation in which all people are 
treated equally and no one has an unfair advantage

extract /.k.str.kt/ vt. to get an advantage or good thing from a situation; 
(formal) to remove an object from somewhere, especially 
with difficulty

friction /.fr.k..n/ n. disagreement, angry feelings, or unfriendliness between 
people; (technical) the natural force that prevents one 
surface from sliding easily over another surface

hub /h.b/ n. the central and most important part of an area, system, 
activity, etc., which all the other parts are connected to; 
the central part of a wheel to which the axle is joined

idle /.a.dl/ adj. not working or producing anything; lazy

intangible /.n.t.nd..b.l/ n. & adj. an asset that is not corporeal; (quality or feeling) difficult to 
describe exactly; having value but not existing physically

intermediary /..nt..mi.di.ri/ n. a person or organization that tries to help two other 
people or groups to agree with each other

legislation /.led...sle...n/ n. a law or set of laws; the act of making laws

lodging /.l.d.../ n. a place to stay; (old-fashioned) a room in someone’s 
house which you live in and pay rent for

meager /.mi.ɡ./ adj. too small and much less than you need

mortgage /.m..ɡ.d./ n. the amount of money you borrow in the form of a 
mortgage; a legal arrangement by which you borrow 
money from a bank or similar organization in order to 
buy a house, and pay back the money over a period of 
years

overhead /...v.hed/ n. a company’s general costs for activities not related to 
particular products

perk /p..k/ n. something that you get legally from your work in addition 
to your wages, such as goods, meals, or a car

potent /.p..t.nt/ adj. having a very powerful effect or influence on your body 
or mind; powerful and effective

proprietor /pr..pra..t./ n. (formal) an owner of a business

realm /relm/ n. (written) a general area of knowledge, activity, or thought; 
(literary) a country ruled by a king or queen

referral /r..f..r.l/ n. the act of sending someone who needs professional 
help to a person or place that can provide it



refinance /ri..fa.n.ns/ vt. & vi. to borrow money from a bank, etc. in order to pay back 
an existing amount that you owe

solicit /s..l.s.t/ vt. (formal) to ask someone for money, help, or information; 
(American English) to try to sell a product or service by 
taking it to homes or businesses and showing it to the 
people there

stake /ste.k/ n. if you have a stake in a business, you have invested 
money in it; money that you risk as the result of a horse 
race, card game, etc.

stingy /.st.nd.i/ adj. a stingy amount of something, especially food, is too 
small; (informal) not generous, especially with money

tangible /.t.nd..b.l/ n. & adj. an asset capable of being appraised at an actual or 
approximate value; clear enough or definite enough to 
be easily seen or noticed; can be touched or felt

transit /.tr.ns.t/ n. a system for moving people from place to place; the 
process of moving goods or people from one place to 
another

undercut /..nd..k.t/ vt. to make something weaker or less effective; to sell 
goods or a service at a lower price than another 
company

utility /ju..t.l.ti/ n. (countable, usually plural) a service such as gas or 
electricity provided for people to use; a piece of computer 
software that has a particular use

vet /vet/ vt. & n. (British English) to check someone’s past activities, 
relationships, etc. in order to make sure that person is 
suitable for a particular job, especially an important one; 
(British English, formal) someone who is trained to give 
medical care and treatment to sick animals

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. The text introduces the merits and drawbacks of the sharing economy.

b. The text defines the sharing economy and elaborates on some examples of it, 
including its advantages and drawbacks compared with the traditional one.


Exercises



c. The text talks about the importance of the sharing economy and the changes it 
elicits.

d. The text illustrates that technology makes the advent of the sharing economy 
possible.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. Technology, particularly the Internet, plays an indispensable role in 
the sharing economy.

2. In peer-to-peer lending, both the lender and the borrower bear the 
risk.

3. It is easier for the peer-to-peer lending platforms to make money 
than traditional banks because these platforms don’t have to worry 
about suffering losses from failed loans.

4. All crowdfunding funders aim to make substantial profit from their 
investment.

5. Ridesharing and carsharing offer some benefits of car ownership 
and help shelter from the defects of owning a car.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. How does the author define the sharing economy?

2. Compared with the traditional institution-to-individual lending, what advantages 
does peer-to-peer lending have?

3. How does crowdfunding work?

4. How do the apartment/house sharing platforms deal with the security issues?

5. Who are suitable for the coworking style?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. Though this creates risk for individual lenders who lend via peer-to-peer 
platforms, it provides capital to borrowers who may not be able to find a 
traditional loan at an affordable rate (or at all) due to a shaky credit history or a 
stingy bank. (Para. 11)

2. For creative types, using a crowdfunding platform is less time-consuming—and 
offers a better shot at success—than applying for grants through government or 
nonprofit arts organizations. (Para. 15)

3. However, due diligence still ultimately comes down to the homeowner to 
properly vet potential renters. (Para. 18)

4. These facilities, stocked with coffee and connected to the outside world with 

T F



phone lines and wifi connections, typically feature large, bullpen-style space 
with office suites, conference rooms, and common areas. (Para. 26)

5. Depending on the coworking hub’s policies, you may also need to pay for 
conference room time, storage lockers, P. O. boxes, and other perks. (Para. 27)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. In addition to bikesharing, do you have any other experiences about the 
sharing economy?

2. Would you put your money in peer-to-peer platforms or traditional banks? 
Why?

3. Would you like to live in a hotel or be a couchsurfer? Why?

4. To share or not to share? What’s your opinion?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. What matters the most is that everyone must ________________ by the law.

 a. comply b. agree c. conform d. abide

2. Due to their ________________ salaries, they always live on the edge of bankruptcy.

 a. scarce b. meager c. stingy d. deficient

3. Filmmaking is a(n) ________________ effort and requires the full support of the 
entire cast and crew.

 a. associative b. supportive c. collaborative d. combined

4. Surprisingly his opinion was ________________ with John’s at this conference 
given that they used to hold almost opposite ideas on this issue.

 a. same b. identical c. similar d. equal

5. One of the ________________ of being a student is cheap travel.

 a. perks b. profits c. grants d. subsidies

6. There should be some ________________ evidence that the economy is starting to 
recover.



a. intangible b. tangible c. invisible d. visible

7. It is reported that produce can lose up to half its nutrients in ________________ if 
it’s not handled properly.

 a. transfer b. transformation c. transmit d. transit

8. We should ________________ opinions from all sides on this issue.

 a. solicit b. ask c. require d. inquire

9. Heathrow, the main international ________________ in Europe, handles millions 
of passengers every year.

 a. center b. hub c. headquarter d. focus

10. Subsidies from the government allowed the farmers to ________________ 
competitors and depress world prices.

 a. detract b. damage c. weaken d. undercut

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

on demand compel...to extract...from exchange with
abide by contribute...to get by have a shot at
at all costs have an option

1. We felt so excited to ________________ them experience in photography.

2. They believe that immediate customer service should be available ________________.

3. We wondered how he could ________________ on so little money?

4. They ________________ the oil ________________ the seeds for use in cooking and 
manufacturing.

5. After her appalling behaviour, we ________________ but to dismiss her.

6. Duty ________________ the soldiers ________________ volunteer for the mission.

7. It was a real team effort—everyone ________________ something ________________
the success of the project.

8. I thought I’d ________________ making my own wine.

9. If you join the club, you must ________________ its rules.

10. Security during the president’s visit must be maintained ________________.



II. Each line of the following paragraph contains one error. You are to find 
out the error and correct it.

Not all people like to work and everyone likes to play. All over 1. ______________

the world men and woman, boys and girls enjoy sports. Since 2. ______________

long ago, many adults and children called their friends together 3. ______________

to spend hours, even days play games. One of the reasons people 4. ______________

like to play is that sports help them to live happily. In other word, 5. ______________

they help to keep people strong and feel good. When people are 6. ______________

playing games, they move a lot. That is how sports are good activities 7. ______________

for their health. Having fun with their friends make them happy. 8. ______________

Many people enjoy sports by watching the others play. In American 9. ______________

big cities, thousands sell tickets to watch football or basketball games. 10. ______________

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. These exchange relationships often undercut traditional retail or employment 
arrangements, generally by reducing transactional friction or looping 
middlemen out altogether.

2. In many circumstances, it allows participants to get by without owning valuable 
items, such as cars, while creating opportunities for others to extract value from 
idle possessions or talents.

3. And for those who contribute funds, the rewards can range from the emotional 
satisfaction of supporting something they care about, to an equity stake in a 
potentially successful venture.

4. The traditional hospitality industry focuses on hotel rooms as opposed to entire 
suites, apartments, or homes. But these can be cramped and often lack amenities 
that make a longer stay more comfortable.

5. It’s particularly useful for freelancers, sole proprietors, and very small businesses 
that don’t have huge inventories requiring lots of storage space.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words given in 
brackets.

1. 小组合作学习是基本的组织形式和主要的活动方式，教师应该充分发挥其优势。
（collaborative）

2. 有清晰的证据表明，他们一直以低价销售来削弱公司的利益。（tangible; undercut）



3. 计算机为资本流动注入了强劲的动力，成千上万新成立的公司已涌入计算机市场。
（potent）

4. 这种药物是运用传统工艺从植物中萃取出来的，接受这种药物治疗的人普遍感觉轻
松舒适。（extract; recipient）

5. 通过立法，欧盟内部有形和无形的贸易壁垒被打破了，欧盟各国内的商品可以自由
流通。（intangible; legislation）

6. 在雕塑领域，这位艺术家的作品和技艺都早已被国内外同行所认可。（realm）

7. 他们试图通过技术引进和技术革新来推动陈旧工业的现代化，结果劳而无功。
（antiquated）

8. 在没有计算机辅助的情况下对全市公共设施的信息进行分析研究，几乎是不可能的。
（virtually）

D

 Writing

With the rapid development of technology, the sharing economy has become an 
indispensable part of our life and begun to change our lifestyle and life philosophy.

What kind of sharing economy have you ever engaged in? Discuss its advantages 
and disadvantages in an essay with no less than 300 words.



1 In 2019, it is a mind-bending exercise to reflect on the past decade of the sharing 
economy. A time traveler who skipped here from 2009 would note that it has fulfilled 
both more than, and less than, its original potential.

2 The sharing economy’s explosive growth has astounded even optimistic market 
pundits. On the one hand, there are now many thousands of sharing economy 
platforms operating in almost every sector and activity around the world. Back in 
2009, there were only a handful: Zipcar, BlaBlaCar and Couchsurfing among them. 
Airbnb had launched in fall 2008, Uber in spring 2009. “Access over ownership” is 
a shift that has taken root, as digital and mobile technologies make it ever easier to 
access goods and services on demand. It is no longer a millennial preference, but a 
part of modern society.

3 At the same time, the sharing economy has lost some of its original allure. In the 
early days, it was rare not to have a conversation about how the sharing economy could 
responsibly mitigate hyper-consumption and truly build community connections. 
These benefits have not disappeared, but it is increasingly difficult to find sharing 
economy platforms that practice these principles in reality. The focus has shifted 
towards convenience, price and transactional efficiency: “community” as commodity.

4 On the eve of its next decade, what can we expect from the sharing economy in 
2019? Here are a few predictions.

Uneven growth

5 This year will see the first sharing economy IPOs, and it may see the first large-


B

Text

Four Big Trends for the 

Sharing Economy in 2019



scale bankruptcies as well. Both Lyft and Uber have filed to go public, most likely 
in the first half of 2019. Uber is valued at $120 billion (￡94.7 billion) and Lyft at 
$15 billion (￡11.8 billion). Whether drivers will share in any upside remains to be 
seen. Changes to ownership structures that reflect the reality of today’s workforce, 
particularly the gig economy, are much-needed tools to address equitable wealth 
distribution.

6 At the other end of the spectrum, especially in China, some sharing economy 
superstars are struggling. Bikesharing unicorn OFO is reported to be on the verge 
of bankruptcy, while other platforms have been inundated by customers demanding 
refunds of their deposits. The rush to scale the sharing economy in China is 
unprecedented in the world; the Chinese government wants it to account for 10% of 
national GDP by 2020.

7 In the race to grow, we cannot forget that building a thriving, sustainable sharing 
economy platform depends essentially on two elements: mindset shifts and trust. 
Mindsets take time; change doesn’t happen overnight. Platforms that strive to grow 
too fast (whether spending money too quickly, or assuming that demand will be 
exponential) or compromise customer trust (which is hard to build and extremely easy 
to lose) may find themselves facing difficult decisions in 2019.

8 Whether Uber and Lyft are able to find a long-term sustainable business model 
without raising prices is a prediction I’ll have to make in 2020.

Demographic diversity in the driver’s seat

9 In 2019 and beyond, the sharing economy will be driven increasingly by 
demographics that have played a (mostly) supporting role to date: the emerging 
middle class, women and the elderly.

10 For the first time in human history, the middle class represents the majority of 
the global population—and it is projected to double in the next 10 years, to 5.2 billion 
people. Women are expected to be responsible for 2/3 of the rise in all disposable 
income in the next decade. Meanwhile, there are larger numbers of aging residents in 
the U.S., Japan, across Europe and beyond.

11 Each of these demographics will play a bigger role within the sharing economy. 
The sharing economy enables people to access things they might not otherwise be 
able to afford, providing an onramp to greater economic participation. Women 
are already among the most ardent sharing-economy customers, and the growth 
of the “she-conomy” is likely to further boost this. And the sharing economy may 
gradually reshape retirement: as more people seek to age in place, need extra income 



or want to stay engaged in their communities, platforms such as SilverNest and 
GoGoGrandparent are designed to meet such needs.

Regulators leaning in, especially in cities

12 In 2012, I foresaw the need for policy-makers and sharing economy platforms to 
work together, and that outdated rules and policies would prove a sticking point. The 
ensuing years proved this true on a weekly basis, and at times it was excruciatingly 
difficult. The coming 12 months will be no less challenging for regulators, though we’ll 
see occasional bright spots and collaboration, particularly at the city level.

13 Gradually, cities are learning that the sharing economy requires them to be 
proactive, in terms of both appropriate regulation and the harnessing of local 
economic development. No city has “figured it out” or developed a fully integrated 
strategy, though some cities have banded together and issued a declaration of common 
principles and commitments for sharing cities. In 2019 this momentum is likely 
to continue—whether it moves, however, beyond aspiration to genuine inter-city 
outcomes (such as policy standards implementation or collective negotiation) remains 
to be seen.

14 We can also expect to see increased regulatory awareness and, occasionally, 
even sophistication. For example, in 2018 Denmark became the first country to 
enable Airbnb hosts to report income directly to tax authorities, while many places 
are developing transportation-as-a-service platforms to better meet the needs of all 
residents, including those on low incomes. We can note a sea change in how regulators 
have reacted to the entry of e-scooters, compared with how they dealt with ride-hailing 
platforms years ago. Many cities have moved to put e-scooter platforms on notice—in 
effect, “proceed with caution”—while others, such as Portland, Oregon, have run pilots 
to determine the appropriate regulatory targets. It’s still too early to know the verdict, 
and e-scooter companies face mounting challenges beyond public policy, but it is clear 
that government does not intend to stand by idly.

From the sharing economy to the…economy?

15 A couple of years ago, I called out the challenge with sharing economy 
terminology and the growing risk of “sharewashing”: companies latching onto 
the term because it sounds enticing, not because there is actual sharing involved. 
Unfortunately, today this language remains as blurry as ever. We confuse the sharing 
economy and gig economy, to no one’s benefit; although there is some overlap—both 
the sharing and gig economy platforms help people earn income, for instance—this 
confusion often hampers discussions on critical issues such as the future of work.



16 On the upside, the sharing economy is increasingly seen simply as part of “the 
economy”. This may be the ultimate sign of the sharing economy’s success.

17 Whether 2019 portends more growth or difficulty for the sharing economy 
depends on several factors. It will be a year of reality checks and rebalanced priorities. 
Do we double down on responsible business, or do we turn a blind eye towards 
potential pitfalls or opportunities to abuse platform power? Do we return to the 
sharing economy’s original roots—resource efficiency, sustainability and community—
or further muddy its meaning? These answers are up to us.

(1,182 words)


Words and Expressions

abuse /..bju.z/ vt. to deliberately use something for the wrong purpose or 
for your own advantage

allure /..lj../ n. a mysterious, exciting, or desirable quality

ardent /.ɑ.d.nt/ adj. showing strong positive feelings about an activity and 
determination to succeed at it

astound /..sta.nd/ vt. to make someone very surprised or shocked

blurry /.bl..ri/ adj. without a clear outline

demographic /.dem..ɡr.f.k/ adj. relating to the population and groups of people in it

ensuing /.n.sju.../ adj. happening after a particular action or event, especially 
as a result of it

enticing /.n.ta.s../ adj. attractive or interesting

excruciating /.k.skru..ie.t../ adj. extremely painful

gig /g.g/ n. a job, especially one that does not last for a long time

hail /he.l/ vt. & vi. to call to someone in order to greet them or try to attract 
their attention

hamper /.h.mp./ vt. to make it difficult for someone to do something

harness /.hɑ.n.s/ vt. to control and use the natural force or power of 
something

momentum /m...ment.m/ n. the ability to keep increasing, developing, or being more 
successful

muddy /.m.di/ vt. to make something dirty with mud

onramp /.n.r.mp/ n. a road for driving onto a freeway

portend /p...tend/ vt. to be a sign that something is going to happen, especially 
something bad



Discuss the following questions. 

1. What roles will women and aging residents play within the sharing economy?

2. Why has the explosive growth of the sharing economy astounded market 
pundits?

3. How was the development of China’s sharing economy in 2019?

Reflective Work

1. What might be the trends of the sharing economy in the following decade?

2. What do you think might be the cultural elements behind the phenomenon of 
the sharing economy?

Intercultural Thinking

 In what way might the different features of the eastern culture and the western 
culture influence the development of the sharing economy?

pundit /.p.nd.t/ n. someone who is often asked to give their opinion 
publicly of a situation or subject

regulator /.reɡj.le.t./ n. an instrument for controlling the temperature, speed, 
etc. of something

scooter /.sku.t./ n. a type of small, less powerful motorcycle with small 
wheels

spectrum /.spektr.m/ n. a complete range of opinions, people, situations, etc., 
going from one extreme to its opposite

verdict /.v..d.kt/ n. an official decision made by a person or group with 
authority


Exercises

Discussion and Exploration



Further Reading

1

 
Title 12 Things That Are Awesome About Being a Solopreneur

 Summary On the surface, the author presents 12 “awesome” things to 
be a solopreneur, yet deep down he actually illustrates the difficulties, 
challenges and risks that a solopreneur may encounter in an ironical way. 
With the introduction of those things, the author offers kind reminders 
to those who would like to be solopreneurs themselves and in the end, 
explicitly expresses his admiration and pride in those who have made a 
successful attempt in being a solopreneur.

2

 
Title The (D)evolution of Bicycling and Bike Share in China

 Summary China, the once well-known Kingdom of Bicycles, underwent 
a sharp decrease in the use of bicycles, particularly from 1995 to 2005. 
Measures have been taken to restrict the daily use of cars and encourage 
the bicycle share program since 2008, and then 2012 witnessed an even 
greater effort. However, the increasing investment from the government 
didn’t meet desirable effects. Bicycle share program was not popular 
in Beijing for two reasons: bike culture and the improper planning. 
Fortunately, following the suggestions from Bufton, a bicycle mobility 
expert, the government was playing catch-up. There is no doubt that bike 
share program has its potential in Beijing.



Belief and 
Culture

Unit



Introduction

Religions shape or even constrain behaviors and dress of their members. Many 
religions have value frameworks regarding personal behavior meant to guide adherents 
in determining between right and wrong and rigid standards concerning how their 
members dress themselves. To many religious groups, dress is an important symbol of 
religious identification and dress codes are less about clothing than about the constraints 
of the body. In the novel The Scarlet Letter, Hester wears the scarlet letter A as a badge of 
distinction as well as the sign of shame it is intended to be.

1

 The Scarlet Letter is set in the seventeenth century New England, and Hawthorne 
successfully depicts the Puritanism that was founded there. How did the rigid 
Puritan standards affect people’s life at that age?

2

 In The Scarlet Letter, how does Hester dress herself and Pearl, her daughter?

3

 How do religious beliefs shape the adherents’ dress?

Introduction

Pre-reading Tasks


205

Unit

Belief and Culture



A

Text

The Prison-Door

Nathaniel Hawthorne1

1 A throng of bearded men, in sad-colored garments and gray steeple-crowned 
hats, intermixed with women, some wearing hoods, and others bareheaded, was 
assembled in front of a wooden edifice, the door of which was heavily timbered with 
oak, and studded with iron spikes.

2 The founders of a new colony, whatever Utopia of human virtue and happiness 
they might originally project, have invariably recognized it among their earliest 
practical necessities to allot a portion of the virgin soil as a cemetery, and another 
portion as the site of a prison. In accordance with this rule, it may safely be assumed 
that the forefathers of Boston had built the first prison-house, somewhere in the 
vicinity of Cornhill, almost as seasonably as they marked out the first burial-ground, 
on Isaac Johnson’s2 lot, and round about his grave, which subsequently became the 
nucleus of all the congregated sepulchers in the old churchyard of King’s Chapel3. 
Certain it is, that, some fifteen or twenty years after the settlement of the town, the 
wooden jail was already marked with weather-stains and other indications of age, 
which gave a yet darker aspect to its beetle-browed and gloomy front. The rust on the 


1 Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864): an American novelist, and short story writer.His fiction works are considered 
part of the Romantic movement and, more specifically, dark romanticism.

2 Isaac Johnson (1601–1630): a 17th-century English clergyman, one of the Puritan founders of Massachusetts and 
the colony’s first magistrate.

3 King’s Chapel: founded by Royal Governor Sir Edmund Andros in 1686 as the first Anglican Church in colonial New 
England during the reign of King James II. The original King’s Chapel was a wooden church built in 1688 at the 
corner of Tremont and School Streets, where the church stands today.



ponderous iron-work of its oaken door looked more antique than anything else in the 
New World. Like all that pertains to crime, it seemed never to have known a youthful 
era. Before this ugly edifice, and between it and the wheel-track of the street, was a 
grass-plot, much overgrown with burdock, pig-weed, apple-peru, and such unsightly 
vegetation, which evidently found something congenial in the soil that had so early 
borne the black flower of civilized society, a prison. But on one side of the portal, and 
rooted almost at the threshold, was a wild rosebush, covered, in this month of June, 
with its delicate gems, which might be imagined to offer their fragrance and fragile 
beauty to the prisoner as he went in, and to the condemned criminal as he came forth 
to his doom, in token that the deep heart of Nature could pity and be kind to him.

3 This rose-bush, by a strange chance, has been kept alive in history; but whether it 
had merely survived out of the stern old wilderness, so long after the fall of the gigantic 
pines and oaks that originally overshadowed it—or whether, as there is fair authority 
for believing, it had sprung up under the footsteps of the sainted Ann Hutchinson4, 
as she entered the prison-door—we shall not take upon us to determine. Finding it 
so directly on the threshold of our narrative, which is now about to issue from that 
inauspicious portal, we could hardly do otherwise than pluck one of its flowers and 
present it to the reader. It may serve, let us hope, to symbolize some sweet moral 
blossom, that may be found along the track, or relieve the darkening close of a tale of 
human frailty and sorrow.

4 The grass-plot before the jail, in Prison Lane, on a certain summer morning, not 
less than two centuries ago, was occupied by a pretty large number of the inhabitants of 
Boston; all with their eyes intently fastened on the iron-clamped oaken door. Amongst 
any other population, or at a later period in the history of New England, the grim rigidity 
that petrified the bearded physiognomies of these good people would have augured some 
awful business in hand. It could have betokened nothing short of the anticipated execution 
of some noted culprit, on whom the sentence of a legal tribunal had but confirmed 
the verdict of public sentiment. But, in that early severity of the Puritan character, an 
inference of this kind could not so indubitably be drawn. It might be that a sluggish 
bond-servant, or an undutiful child, whom his parents had given over to the civil 
authority, was to be corrected at the whipping-post. It might be that an Antinomian5, 


4 Ann Hutchinson (1591–1643): a Puritan spiritual adviser, religious reformer. Her strong religious convictions were 
at odds with the established Puritan clergy in the Boston area, and her popularity and charisma helped create a 
theological schism that threatened to destroy the Puritans’ religious community in New England.

5 Antinomian: In Christianity, an antinomian is one who takes the principle of salvation by faith which can never 
be lost to the point of asserting that the saved are not bound to follow the moral law contained in the Ten 
Commandments. The distinction between antinomianism and other views on the moral law is that antinomians 
believe that obedience to the law has no role in salvation.



a Quaker6, or other heterodox religionist, was to be scourged out of the town, or an 
idle or vagrant Indian, whom the white man’s fire-water had made riotous about the 
streets, was to be driven with stripes into the shadow of the forest. It might be, too, 
that a witch, like old Mistress Hibbins, the bitter-tempered widow of the magistrate, 
was to die upon the gallows. In either case, there was very much the same solemnity 
of demeanor on the part of the spectators; as befitted a people amongst whom religion 
and law were almost identical, and in whose character both were so thoroughly 
interfused, that the mildest and the severest acts of public discipline were alike made 
venerable and awful. Meagre, indeed, and cold, was the sympathy that a transgressor 
might look for, from such bystanders at the scaffold. On the other hand, a penalty 
which, in our days, would infer a degree of mocking infamy and ridicule, might then 
be invested with almost as stern a dignity as the punishment of death itself.

The marketplace

5 It was a circumstance to be noted, on the summer morning when our story begins 
its course, that the women, of whom there were several in the crowd, appeared to take 
a peculiar interest in whatever penal infliction might be expected to ensue. The age 
had not so much refinement, that any sense of impropriety restrained the wearers of 
petticoat and farthingale from stepping forth into the public ways, and wedging their 
not unsubstantial persons, if occasion were, into the throng nearest to the scaffold 
at an execution. Morally, as well as materially, there was a coarser fibre in those 
wives and maidens of old English birth and breeding, than in their fair descendants, 
separated from them by a series of six or seven generations; for, throughout that chain 
of ancestry, every successive mother has transmitted to her child a fainter bloom, 
a more delicate and briefer beauty, and a slighter physical frame, if not character of 
less force and solidity than her own. The women, who were now standing about the 
prison-door, stood within less than half a century of the period when the man-like 
Elizabeth had been the not altogether unsuitable representative of the sex. They were 
her countrywomen; and the beef and ale of their native land, with a moral diet not a 
whit more refined, entered largely into their composition. The bright morning sun, 
therefore, shone on broad shoulders and well-developed busts, and on round and 
ruddy cheeks, that had ripened in the far-off island, and had hardly yet grown paler 
or thinner in the atmosphere of New England. There was, moreover, a boldness and 
rotundity of speech among these matrons, as most of them seemed to be, that would 
startle us at the present day, whether in respect to its purport or its volume of tone.


6 Quaker: member of a Christian group (the Society of Friends, or Friends Church) that stresses the guidance of the 
Holy Spirit, that rejects outward rites and an ordained ministry, and that has a long tradition of actively working for 
peace and opposing war. 



6 “Goodwives,” said a hard-featured dame of fifty, “I’ll tell ye a piece of my mind. It 
would be greatly for the public behoof if we women, being of mature age and church-
members in good repute, should have the handling of such malefactresses as this 
Hester Prynne. What think ye, gossips? If the hussy stood up for judgment before us 
five, that are now here in a knot together, would she come off with such a sentence as 
the worshipful magistrates have awarded? Marry, I trow not!”

7 “People say,” said another, “that the Reverend Master Dimmesdale, her godly 
pastor, takes it very grievously to heart that such a scandal should have come upon his 
congregation.”

8 “The magistrates are God-fearing gentlemen, but merciful overmuch—that is 
a truth,” added a third autumnal matron. “At the very least, they should have put the 
brand of a hot iron on Hester Prynne’s forehead. Madame Hester would have winced 
at that, I warrant me. But she—the naughty baggage—little will she care what they put 
upon the bodice of her gown. Why, look you, she may cover it with a brooch, or such 
like heathenish adornment, and so walk the streets as brave as ever.”

9 “Ah, but,” interposed, more softly, a young wife, holding a child by the hand, “let 
her cover the mark as she will, the pang of it will be always in her heart.”

10 “What do we talk of marks and brands, whether on the bodice of her gown or the 
flesh of her forehead?” cried another female, the ugliest as well as the most pitiless of 
these self-constituted judges. “This woman has brought shame upon us all, and ought 
to die. Is there no law for it? Truly there is, both in the Scripture and the statute-book. 
Then let the magistrates, who have made it of no effect, thank themselves if their own 
wives and daughters go astray!”

11 “Mercy on us, goodwife,” exclaimed a man in the crowd, “is there no virtue in 
woman, save what springs from a wholesome fear of the gallows? That is the hardest 
word yet! Hush, now, gossips; for the lock is turning in the prison door, and here 
comes Mistress Prynne herself.”

12 The door of the jail being flung open from within, there appeared, in the first 
place, like a black shadow emerging into sunshine, the grim and grisly presence of the 
town beadle, with a sword by his side, and his staff of office in his hand. This personage 
prefigured and represented in his aspect the whole dismal severity of the Puritan code 
of law which it was his business to administer in its final and closest application to the 
offender. Stretching forth the official staff in his left hand, he laid his right upon the 
shoulder of a young woman, whom he thus drew forward; until, on the threshold of 
the prison-door, she repelled him, by an action marked with natural dignity and force 



of character, and stepped into the open air, as if by her own free-will. She bore in her 
arms a child, a baby of some three months old, who winked and turned aside its little 
face from the too vivid light of day; because its existence, heretofore, had brought it 
acquainted only with the gray twilight of a dungeon, or other darksome apartment of 
the prison.

13 When the young woman—the mother of this child—stood fully revealed before 
the crowd, it seemed to be her first impulse to clasp the infant closely to her bosom; 
not so much by an impulse of motherly affection, as that she might thereby conceal a 
certain token, which was wrought or fastened into her dress. In a moment, however, 
wisely judging that one token of her shame would but poorly serve to hide another, 
she took the baby on her arm, and, with a burning blush, and yet a haughty smile, and 
a glance that would not be abashed, looked around at her townspeople and neighbors. 
On the breast of her gown, in fine red cloth, surrounded with an elaborate embroidery 
and fantastic flourishes of gold thread, appeared the letter A. It was so artistically 
done, and with so much fertility and gorgeous luxuriance of fancy, that it had all the 
effect of a last and fitting decoration to the apparel which she wore; and which was of a 
splendor in accordance with the taste of the age, but greatly beyond what was allowed 
by the sumptuary regulations of the colony.

(1,876 words)

abashed /..b..t/ adj. embarrassed or ashamed because you have done 
something wrong or stupid 

adornment /..d..nm.nt/ n. something that is used to make a person or thing 
more beautiful; the process of making something more 
beautiful by adding something to it

ale /e.l/ n. a type of beer made from malt; (old-fashioned) beer

apparel /..p.r.l/ n. formal clothes

augur /...ɡ./ vi. to indicate by signs

beadle /.bi.dl/ n. an officer in British churches in the past, who helped the 
priest in various ways, especially by keeping order

betoken /b..t..k.n/ vt. (literary) to be a sign of something

bodice /.b.d.s/ n. the part of a woman’s dress above her waist

burdock /.b...d.k/ n. a coarse weedy Eurasian plant of the genus Arctium, 
having large heart-shaped leaves, tiny purple flowers 
surrounded by hooked bristles, and burlike fruits


Words and Expressions



congenial /k.n.d.i.ni.l/ adj. pleasant in a way that makes you feel comfortable and 
relaxed; suitable for something

congregate /.k..ɡr.ɡe.t/ vi. to come together in a group 

demeanor /d..mi.n./ n. the way someone behaves, dresses, speaks, etc. that 
shows what their character is like

dungeon /.d.nd..n/ n. a dark underground prison, especially under a castle, 
that was used in the past

edifice /.ed.f.s/ n. (formal) a building, especially a large one

farthingale /.fɑ.e...ɡe.l/ n. a hoop or framework worn under skirts, esp. in the 
Elizabethan period, to shape and spread them 

gallows /.ɡ.l..z/ n. a structure used for killing criminals by hanging them 
from a rope

garment /.ɡɑr.m.nt/ n. (formal) a piece of clothing

haughty /.h..ti/ adj. behaving in a proud unfriendly way 

heathenish /.hi.e.n../ adj. of, relating to, or resembling a heathen or heathen 
culture

heretofore /.h..t..f../ adv. (formal) before this time

heterodox /.het.r.d.ks/ adj. (formal) not approved of by a particular group, especially 
a religious one

indubitably /.n.dju.b.t.bli/ adv. (formal) certainly or without doubt

infamy /..nf.mi/ n. the state of being evil or well known for evil things

infliction /.n.fl.k..n/ n. an act causing pain or damage

interfuse /..nt..fju.z/ vt. to diffuse or mix throughout or become so diffused or 
mixed; intermingle

malefactress /'m.lif.ktr.s/ n. a female criminal or a woman who does something 
wrong

pertain /p..te.n/ vi. to have to do with or be relevant to (pertain to something)

petrify /.petr.fa./ vt. to make somebody extremely frightened, especially so 
frightened that he/she cannot move or think (petrified of)

petticoat /.petik..t/ n. a piece of women’s underwear like a thin skirt or dress 
that is worn under a skirt or dress

physiognomy /.f.zi..n.mi/ n. (technical) the general appearance of a person’s face

pluck /pl.k/ vt. to pull something quickly in order to remove it

ponderous /.p.nd.r.s/ adj. slow or awkward because of being very big and heavy

prefigure /.pri..f.ɡ./ vt. (formal) to be a sign that something will happen later

rotundity /r..'t.nd.ti/ n. (formal & humorous) having a fat round body 

save /se.v/ conj. (old use or formal) except

scourge /sk..d./ vt. to hit someone with a whip as punishment in the past; 
to cause a lot of harm or suffering to a place or group of 
people



sepulcher /.sep.lk./ n. (old use) a small room or building in which the bodies of 
dead people were put

stud /st.d/ vt. to scatter or intersperse like dots or studs

successive /s.k.ses.v/ adj. coming or following one after the other

sumptuary /.s.mptj..ri/ adj. relating to or controlling expenditure or extravagance 

transgressor /tr.nz.ɡres./ n. someone who has broken a particular rule or law 
or has done something that is generally considered 
unacceptable

tribunal /tra..bju.nl/ n. a type of court that is given official authority to deal with 
a particular situation or problem

venerable /.ven.r.b.l/ adj. (formal) being respected because of one’s great age, 
experience, etc., often used humorously

vicinity /v..s.n.ti/ n. a surrounding or nearby region

wedge /wed./ vt. to force something firmly into a narrow space

wrought /r..t/ vt. (formal or literary) to caused something to happen, 
especially a change; the old past tense and past 
participle of work

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. It sets the scene of the novel and introduces the main character, Hester Prynne, 
as she is led through the unsympathetic crowd to the scaffold of the pillory as a 
punishment for her sin.

b. It describes the scene outside the prison for readers to get to know the colony in 
Boston.

c. It describes how self-righteous and vicious the Puritan women waiting outside 
the prison are when they discuss Hester Prynne and her sin.

d. It describes the prison from where Hester emerges and how proud and beautiful 
Hester is.


Exercises



II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. The wooden jail had existed for a long time before the founders of 
new colony came.

2. For people in the new colony, the church and the state were almost 
the same.

3. The women who appeared to take peculiar interest in the penalty 
on the summer morning inherited from their mothers fainter 
blooms, more delicate and briefer beauties, and slighter physical 
frames.

4. The female spectators had great sympathy for Hester Prynne and 
her baby.

5. Hester Prynne emerged from the prison with elegance and a 
ladylike air to her movements.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. According to the author, what are the first two structures typically built in a 
new colony?

2. What does the black flower of civilized society refer to?

3. What does the rose-bush outside the prison symbolize?

4. Why are the several matrons in the crowd called self-constituted judges in 
Para.10?

5. Why do those “self-constituted judges” make disparaging comments on Hester?

6. According to the matrons’ utterance, which matron is most sympathetic?

7. Why does the author say “there appeared, in the first place, like a black shadow 
emerging into sunshine where the door of the jail flung open”?

8. Could Hester conceal the letter A on the breast of her gown? Why or why not?

9. Why was the letter A on the breast of Hester’s gown greatly beyond what was 
allowed by the sumptuary of the colony?

10. How would Hester be formally, officially set apart from the rest of society?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. The founders of a new colony, whatever Utopia of human virtue and happiness 
they might originally project, have invariably recognized it among their earliest 
practical necessities to allot a portion of the virgin soil as a cemetery, and 
another portion as the site of a prison. (Para. 2)

T F



2. The rust on the ponderous iron-work of its oaken door looked more antique 
than anything else in the New World. Like all that pertains to crime, it seemed 
never to have known a youthful era. (Para. 2)

3. Finding it so directly on the threshold of our narrative, which is now about to 
issue from that inauspicious portal, we could hardly do otherwise than pluck 
one of its flowers and present it to the reader. (Para. 3)

4. The women, who were now standing about the prison-door, stood within less 
than half a century of the period when the man-like Elizabeth had been the not 
altogether unsuitable representative of the sex. (Para. 5)

5. This personage prefigured and represented in his aspect the whole dismal 
severity of the Puritan code of law which it was his business to administer in its 
final and closest application to the offender. (Para. 12)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. What is significant about the novel’s title: The Scarlet Letter?

2. How essential are the settings, both geographical and temporal, to the story? 
Could the story have taken place anywhere else or in any other time period?

3. The colonists are quick to establish a prison and a cemetery in their “Utopia”. 
What comments can you make on it?

4. Chapter One of The Scarlet Letter involves fairly detailed description of the 
setting. What do you think of this kind of beginning in the novel?

5. When she stepped out of the dungeon, Hester Prynne repelled the town 
beadle, an action marked with dignity and force of character. What is your 
understanding of her behaviour in this situation?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. The food shortage is a result of three years of________________ floods.

 a. subsequent b. successive c. predominant d. preliminary

2. Economic anarchy ________________ the post-war world.

 a. scourged b. scolded c. scoured d. scouted



3. At Plymouth, despite an ________________ start, a fine first spring had improved 
the Pilgrim spirits.

 a. inaugural b. augury c. auspicious d. inauspicious

4. The only other downside I noticed was that the car tended to be a little ________________ 
in lower gears around town.

 a. sumptuous b. heathenish c. ponderous d. pondering

5. All the conditions seemed optimal: the ________________ company, the wonderful 
weather, the historic venue.

 a. congestion b. congenial c. autumnal d. venerable

6. They have fifty thousand troops along the border ready to ________________ any 
attack.

 a. appeal b. repute c. repel d. repeal

7. She just stood there, ________________ at the thought of the crowds waiting 
outside.

 a. petrified b. purified c. infused d. indubitable

8. Nietzsche’s achievement is rather to have ________________ so much of twentieth-
century thought.

 a. presented b. processed c. plucked d. prefigured

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank(s) in each sentence with a phrase taken from the box in 
its appropriate form.

take...to heart in respect to spring up by chance
issue from in the vicinity in accordance with pertain to
be overgrown with relieve…of

1. Prehistoric graves have recently been discovered ________________.

2. Because there are some religions that believe in nonmedical spiritual healing, 
most states provide special laws ________________ them.

3. Whether ________________ or providence, we are now working a lot more like 
bees, in all their wisdom.

4. Dozens of websites ________________ to provide information for travelers.

5. Plant communities in the vicinity of the Amazon arise ________________ the 
undulations of the terrain.

6. Both sides of the road ________________ weeds.



7. What do you think is the most common mistake developers make ________________ 
testing code?

8. Brian is a very sensitive kind of person and he ________________ criticism very 
much ________________.

9. A secretary was hired to ________________ her ________________ some of the 
administrative work.

10. A weak trembling sound ________________ his lips.

 II. Each of the following sentences contains one error. You are to find out 
the error and correct it.

1. A young woman, Hester Prynne, is led from the town prison with her infant 
daughter, Pearl, in her arms and the scarlet letter A in her breast.

2. Hester’s refusal to name the child’s father create conflict between her and the 
community of Boston, who treat her as a sinner and an outcast.

3. Hester will not conceal her lover’s identity, however, and the scarlet letter, along 
with her public shaming, is her punishment for her sin and her secrecy.

4. On this day Hester is led to the town scaffold or harangued by the town fathers, 
but she again refuses to identify her child’s father.

5. Hester arranges an encounter to Dimmesdale in the forest because she is aware 
that Chillingworth has probably guessed that she plans to reveal his identity to 
Dimmesdale.

6. Many years later, Hester returns alone, still wear the scarlet letter, to live in her 
old cottage and resume her charitable work.

7. Hester changes as she witnesses Dimmesdale being tormented by guilt, and 
finally redeeming himself by public confessing.

8. Chillingworth is the major obstacle stood between Hester and her goals, 
because he is determined to torment and expose Dimmesdale.

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following paragraphs into Chinese.

1. But on one side of the portal, and rooted almost at the threshold, was a wild 
rosebush, covered, in this month of June, with its delicate gems, which might 
be imagined to offer their fragrance and fragile beauty to the prisoner as he 
went in, and to the condemned criminal as he came forth to his doom, in 
token that the deep heart of Nature could pity and be kind to him.

2. Morally, as well as materially, there was a coarser fibre in those wives and 
maidens of old English birth and breeding, than in their fair descendants, 



separated from them by a series of six or seven generations; for, throughout that 
chain of ancestry, every successive mother has transmitted to her child a fainter 
bloom, a more delicate and briefer beauty, and a slighter physical frame, if not 
character of less force and solidity than her own.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 公主送给他一把镶着金币的剑。（be studded with）

2. 农民这才想起他的田地，可是它们已经荒芜了。（be overgrown with）

3. 有关收养的法律，各个国家有所不同。（pertain to）

4. 这些早期的绘画清楚地显现出他后期作品的精神。（prefigure）

5. 从她绽放的笑容里不难看出，她交上了志趣相投的朋友。（congenial）

6. 一想到附近曾经发生过恐怖袭击，威廉就恐慌不已。（petrified, in the vicinity）

7. 他凡事记挂在心，到了晚上，备受良心的折磨，不能入睡。（take...to heart, scourge）

8. 这种爬行动物浑身是刺，几乎所有的捕食者都对它退避三舍。（repel）

D

 Writing

In many cultures, dress reflects status, wealth, religious beliefs, and traditional 
sensibilities. As early as the 16th century, the idea “Apparel makes the man” turned up, 
which is now sometimes put as “The tailor makes the man” or “Clothes make man”. 
What are your views on the functions of dress? Write an essay with no less than 300 
words to express your ideas.



1 The interaction between religion, culture, and dress is fascinating. Dress can 
be a window into the social world, which is bound by a tacit set of rules, customs, 
conventions, and rituals that guide face-to-face interaction. To many religious 
organizations, clothing is an important symbol of religious identification. However, for 
most groups, the regulation of personal appearance goes beyond clothing. The term 
dress as it is used here includes clothing, grooming, and all forms of body adornment. 
Dress also includes behaviors related to the control of the body, such as dieting, plastic 
surgery, and cosmetics. Holistically, then, dress functions as an effective means of 
nonverbal communication. Ideas, concepts, and categories fundamental to a group, 
such as age, gender, ethnicity, and religion, help to define a person’s identity that is 
then expressed outwardly through a person’s appearance. Both individual and group 
identity is projected through dress because people use self-presentation and self-
promotion to visually present identity that is congruent with their belief systems.

The sacred and the secular

2 Where religion is concerned, clothing can be divided into two categories often 
referred to as the sacred and the secular (or profane). In some instances, what is 
treated as sacred is merely a garment that has important cultural implications with 
regard to gendered power. In patriarchal religions where the perception is that males 
are given the responsibility of seeing to the enforcement of religious rules, some 
garments become associated with the sacred primarily through the prescription and 
enforcement of a dress code. The most recent example of the conflation of gendered 


B

Text

Dress in Different

Religions

Linda B. Arthur1


1 Linda B. Arthur: a clothing and textiles scholar and the author of Religion, Dress and the Body, Undressing Religion and 
Aloha Attire: Hawaiian Dress in the Twentieth Century.



power and dress is the prescription that women in Afghanistan in the early 2000s were 
required to wear the burqa2 (or chadaree).

3 While secular dress is not exclusively associated with religious activities, secular 
dress is used in ritual or is worn by certain religious practitioners such as the clergy. 
Dress used for religious ceremonies and rituals is referred to as ecclesiastical dress; 
modern dress for Roman Catholic priests resembles dress from the early days of the 
Christian church when the clergy were not distinguished from other male members of 
the church by their dress. However, in the sixth century as fashion changed, the clergy 
did not adopt the new fashions and continued to wear the older styles. Ecclesiastical 
dress has become a form of fossilized fashion, a phenomenon where the garments 
worn seem frozen in time and continues to be worn even as other forms of dress 
evolved.

4 A common theme with regard to liturgical garments worn by male clergy is the 
demasculinization of sacred dress. For many religions, sacred dress for male clergy 
commonly avoids pants in favor of loose, flowing robes. Because hair is symbolic of 
sexuality, it is controlled in many religions. Some orders of priests, nuns, and monks 
shave their heads, remove a lock of hair, or cut their hair to symbolize their turning 
away from the pleasures of the world.

5 Interestingly, everyday dress for certain ethno-religious subcultures, such as 
Hasidic Jews3, Amish, and conservative Mennonites, is considered sacred, especially in 
the symbolic separation of the ethno-religious subculture from a dominant culture. As 
religious groups encounter social change, dress often symbolically becomes important 
as certain items of a religious group’s clothing may be classified as sacred in contrast 
to what is considered secular. Generally, the most symbolic dress features of Amish 
and Mennonites (hats, beards, head coverings, bonnets, aprons) are considered sacred. 
Similarly, among conservative Muslim women, very fashionable clothing may be worn 
underneath the veils (sacred garments), known as chador, chadaree, or burqa, that are 
seen by outsiders. Sacred dress worn externally then becomes used intentionally to 
visually separate these religious groups from the larger culture. Often, the rules as to 
dress codes are imposed by male clergy on female members of the community, and in 
doing so, these patriarchal religious societies intentionally use dress codes to maintain 


2 burqa: the form of Islamic dress that conceals the most. Those who wear the burqa have their face completely 
covered, with a mesh cloth covering their eyes. The mesh panel allows the wearer to see but leaves the eyes hidden. 
The term “burqa” is sometimes conflated with “niqab”. The niqab is mainly worn by women in Arab countries, but 
some Muslim women from western countries also choose to wear it.

3 Hasidic Jews: Hasidic (or Chasidic) Judaism is a conservative branch of Haredi Judaism, which is itself a branch of 
Orthodox Judaism. Hasidic Jews believe that prayer and acts of loving kindness are means of reaching God. Hasidic 
philosophy is less ritualistic than other branches of Judaism, and it places a greater emphasis on emotion, warmth, 
and inclusiveness.



a gendered imbalance of power.

6 Some religions have sacred garments that are not visible to outsiders. Mormons4 
who have been to temple wear sacred undergarments beneath otherwise ordinary 
clothing. The sacred undergarments reinforce their commitment to their religion.

Religious ideologies behind dress

7 Organized religion has used dress in two related ways: to maintain the customs 
and traditions of the organization, thereby establishing a visual identity for the religion; 
and to simultaneously control the individual identities of its members by symbolically 
denoting dress as in need of control. Religions create dress codes to overtly define 
morality and modesty while covertly controlling sexuality. Fundamentally, dress 
codes are less about clothing than about the control of the body by the more powerful 
church members who enforce their groups’ ideologies. Religious dress codes express 
group identity and simultaneously function as a means of reinforcing male patriarchal 
control.

8 When a religion uses dress to reinforce tradition, it will usually be seen in 
opposition to fashion, which by its very nature is dynamic. Religious dress will 
change slowly as organized religions often reject fashion as an attempt to focus on 
individuality rather than salvation.

9 To understand how dress is expressive of religious ideologies, it is helpful to 
understand how each of the world’s major religions perceives the role of dress as a 
means of identity expression.

10 Hinduism is a polytheistic religion encompassing a holistic view of life in which 
the inner self is highly valued, and life in the world is seen as temporary. Reincarnation 
is a belief at the base of both the caste system and religious expression. The individual 
works through levels of moral development that are indicated by caste. It is believed 
that the higher the person’s caste, the closer the individual is to the spiritual world. Since 
the focus in Hinduism is on the inner self, dress, an expression of the external self, is 
less important. Dress is tradition bound, and slow to change by comparison to costume 
found in other religious groups. Dress and adornment in Hindu society does show a 
person’s caste, level of piety, or the specific god to which the individual is devoted.

11 Islam is the newest of the major religions and its followers are commonly referred 
to as Muslims. This religion emphasizes the group over the individual, and Islamic 

4 Mormons: members of any of several denominations that trace their origins to a religion founded by Joseph Smith 
in 1830 as divinely inspired and supplemental to the Bible.



ideology focuses on male power and the separation of the sexes through both physical 
and visual means. Dress codes for Muslims have great impact on daily life, which 
involves frequent religious expressions and rituals. Among Muslims, codes of modesty 
go beyond the covering of women’s bodies to include restriction of women’s behavior. 
The Koran requires women to dress modestly, but does not specifically state that 
they must wear veils. Dress codes regarding veiling vary among Islamic families and 
cultures; however, among the most conservative Islamic groups the requirements for 
women to wear veils are seriously enforced. In addition to their ostensible function 
to protect gender segregation, these rules also are intended to slow down assimilation 
that began after World War II when westernization started in Islamic societies. 
As western dress became common, the Islamic fundamentalist movement began 
pushing for a return to tradition. Modest dress and veils became symbolic of both the 
acceptance of patriarchal power and nationalism. Throughout the larger cities in Iran, 
posters announced the specifics of the dress code requiring women to dress in chadors 
that cover all but the face. In Afghanistan under Taliban control, women were killed if 
they did not wear the all-enveloping burqa or chadaree.

12 Judaism, the oldest of the major monotheistic religions, is based on the concept 
that people exist to glorify God; to be appropriately dressed, then, is a religious duty. 
Historically, the ancient Jews had customs that indicated dress was seen as symbolic. 
Since the upper body was seen as pure, but the lower body was perceived as impure, 
Jews wore girdles to make the division between pure and impure visibly clear. Morality 
was connected with dress early on; Moses5 forbade nudity. Similarly, he forbade Jews 
from wearing the clothing of non-Jews in an attempt to keep his people separate 
from influences that might lead to assimilation. In recent times, levels of Judaic 
conservatism are denoted by dress where the most assimilated Jews dress like non-
Jews. However, Orthodox and Hasidic Jews wear specific garments to visibly show 
their religious conservatism.

13 During the Protestant Reformation6 of the sixteenth century, early leaders 
in Christianity used dress as a symbol of piety. Fashionable, colorful dress and 
adornment were equated with sensuality and pride, while somber dress showed the 
Christian’s focus on salvation. For fundamentalist Christians (who evolved out of 
the Reformation) such as the Anabaptist groups (such as Amish, Mennonites, and 


5 Moses: Hebrew prophet, teacher, and leader who, in the 13th century B.C., delivered his people from Egyptian 
slavery. In the Covenant ceremony at Mt. Sinai, where the Ten Commandments were promulgated, he founded the 
religious community known as Israel.

6 Protestant Reformation: the religious revolution that took place in the western church in the 16th century. Its 
greatest leaders undoubtedly were Martin Luther and John Calvin. Having far-reaching political, economic, and 
social effects, the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one of the three major branches 
of Christianity.



Hutterites7) who believe themselves to be uniquely separate from the larger society, 
dress is used to show that separation. In these groups, dress is often hyper-conservative 
or may even be a form of fossilized fashion.

Modesty and female sexuality in dress

14 Among all of the major religions, modesty in women’s dress is associated with 
gender norms; this is a major issue to religious groups. Gender issues are paramount 
in the dress codes of conservative religious groups since the control of female 
sexuality is often of great importance in patriarchal religious groups. The dress codes 
generally relate to modesty and require clothing to cover the contours of the female 
body. Additionally, some religious groups, particularly the most conservative Islamic, 
Anabaptist, and Jewish sects, also require that women’s hair be covered as well.

15 As used by religious groups, the issue of modesty goes beyond the covering of the 
body in order to disguise female curves and secondary sexual characteristics; in the 
conservative strains of all of the major religions, dress codes also deal with the care and 
covering of women’s hair as it is associated with women’s sexuality. Further complicating 
matters, dress codes are conflated with gender and power issues in religious groups. 
At the root of this issue is the control of female sexuality that is perceived to be 
necessary by some religious groups as a means to maintain social order.

16 An understanding of how dress works within religious groups calls attention to 
the complexity of meanings surrounding visible symbols such as dress, and sheds light 
on the ways that bodies can communicate social and religious values. The dress of 
religious groups can be used to facilitate social and ideological agendas. Clothing and 
personal adornments are used for establishing and maintaining personal and social 
identities, social hierarchies, definitions of deviance, and systems of control and power. 
As a consequence, then, dress within conservative religious groups is a symbol of the 
individual’s commitment to the group while it also symbolizes the group’s control over 
individual lives.

17 In conclusion, many religious groups have developed cultural norms with regard 
to dress. Dress codes, both formal and informal, exist as a means of showing group 
identity. Members of religious groups actively construct their own lives and use 
dress symbolically to express religious beliefs, adaptation to social change, and the 
conformity to social norms and religious authority.

(1,812 words)

7 Hutterites: members of the Hutterian Brethren, a branch of the Anabaptist movement, which stressed community 
of goods on the model of the primitive church in Jerusalem.



Words and Expressions

assimilation /..s.m..le...n/ n. the process of becoming an accepted part of a country 
or group; the process of understanding and using new 
ideas

bonnet /.b.n.t/ n. a type of hat that women wore in the past which tied 
under their chin and often had a wide brim; a warm hat 
that a baby wears which ties under his/her chin 

caste /kɑ.st/ n. one of the fixed social classes, which cannot be 
changed, into which people are born in India; a group of 
people who have the same position in society

chador /.t.ɑ.d../ n. a long, usually black, piece of clothing worn by Muslim 
women in some countries, which covers the head and 
body

clergy /'kl..d.i/ n. (plural) the official leaders of religious activities in 
organized religions, such as priests, rabbis, and mullahs

conflate /k.n.fle.t/ vt. to combine two or more things to form a single new 
thing

conflation /k.n.fle...n/ n. the merging of two or more sets of information, texts, 
ideas, etc. into one 

conformity /k.n.f..m.ti/ n. behaviour that obeys the accepted rules of society or a 
group, and is the same as that of most other people

congruent /.k..gru.nt/ adj. (formal) suitable for something; appropriate in a particular 
situation

contour /'k.nt../ n. the shape of the outer edges of something such as an 
area of land or someone’s body

convention /k.n'ven..n/ n. behaviour and attitudes that most people in a society 
consider to be normal and right; a large formal meeting 
for people who belong to the same profession or 
organization or who have the same interests; a formal 
agreement, especially between countries, about 
particular rules or behaviour

covertly /.k.v.rtli/ adv. without being openly acknowledged or displayed; 
secretly 

demasculinization n. loss of male sexual characteristics

 /di:.m.skjul.na.'ze...n/

deviance /'di.vi.ns/ n. the fact or state of diverging from usual or accepted 
standards, especially in social or sexual behavior

disguise /d.s'ga.z/ vt. to hide a fact or feeling so that people will not notice 
it; to change the appearance, sound, taste, etc. of 
something so that people do not recognize it

ecclesiastical /..kli.zi..st.k.l/ adj. relating to the Christian church or its priests



fossilize /'f.s.la.z/ vt. to make outmoded, rigid, or fixed; to become or form a 
fossil by being preserved in rock

girdle /'g..dl/ n. a piece of women’s underwear which fits tightly around 
her stomach, bottom, and hips and makes her look thinner

groom /gru.m/ vt. to take care of your own appearance by keeping your 
hair and clothes clean and tidy; to clean and brush an 
animal, especially a horse

Hindu /'h.ndu./ n. someone whose religion is Hinduism

identification /a..dent.f..ke...n/ n. the process of showing, proving or recognizing who 
or what somebody or something is; official papers or 
cards, such as your passport, that prove who you are

ideology /.a.di..l.d.i/ n. a set of ideas that an economic or political system is 
based on; a set of beliefs, especially one held by a 
particular group, that influences the way people behave 

impose /.m.p..z/ vt. to introduce a new law, rule, tax, etc.; to order that a 
rule, punishment, etc. be used; to force somebody or 
something to have to deal with something that is difficult 
or unpleasant 

Islamic /.z.l.m.k/ adj. belonging or relating to Islam 

Koran /k...rɑ.n/ n. the sacred book on which the religion of Islam is based 

liturgical /l..t..d..k.l/ adj. relating to church services and ceremonies

Mormon /'m..m.n/ n. a member of a religious organization formed in 1830 in 
the U.S., officially called “The Church of Jesus Christ of 
Latter-day Saints”

Muslim /'m.zl.m/ n. someone whose religion is Islam

nudity /.nju.d.ti/ n. the state of being naked 

ostensible /..stens.bl/ adj. (only before noun) seeming or stated to be real or true, 
when this is perhaps not the case 

overtly /'.uv.:tli/ adv. in a way that is open, straightforward, or obvious

paramount /'p.r.ma.nt/ adj. more important than anything else 

patriarchal /.pe.tri.ɑ.k.l/ adj. ruled or controlled only by men; relating to being a patriarch, 
or typical of a patriarch 

piety /'pa..ti/ n. the state of having or showing a deep respect for 
somebody or something, especially for God and religion; 
the state of being pious

polytheistic /.p.l.θi..st.k/ adj. worshipping or believing in more than one god

prescription /pr..skr.p..n/ n. (mass noun) the authoritative recommendation of an 
action or procedure; a particular medicine or treatment 
ordered by a doctor for a sick person

profane /pr..fe.n/ adj. showing a lack of respect for God or holy things; related 
to ordinary life, not religion or holy things

project /pr..d.ekt/ vt. to present somebody or something or yourself to 
other people in a particular way, especially one that 



Discuss the following questions. 

1. How can clothing be categorized where religion is concerned?

2. What does “dress” mean in this text?

3. What are the religious ideologies behind dress in the world’s major religions?

4. What does “modesty” mean in this text? In terms of modesty, what dress code 
should women follow in some religious groups?

gives a good impression; to make the picture of a film, 
photograph, etc. appear in a larger form on a screen or 
flat surface

reincarnation /.ri..nkɑ..ne...n/ n. the belief that after somebody’s death their soul lives 
again in a new body; (usually sing.) a person or an 
animal whose body contains the soul of a dead person

sect /sekt/ n. a group of people with their own particular set of beliefs 
and practices, especially within or separated from a 
larger religious group

secular /'sekj.l./ adj. not connected with or controlled by a church or other 
religious authority; a secular priest lives among ordinary 
people, rather than with other priests in a monastery

sensuality /.sen.u..l.ti/ n. desire for sensual pleasures

simultaneously /.s.m.l.te.ni.sli/ adv. at the same instant

somber /.s.mb./ adj. dark and without any bright colours; sad and serious

subculture /'s.b.k.lt../ n. a particular group of people within a society and their 
behaviour, beliefs, and activities, often used to show 
disapproval

tacit /'t.s.t/ adj. (formal) accepted or understood without actually being 
written down or openly expressed


Exercises



Reflective Work

1. What is your understanding of the scarlet letter A worn by Hester?

2. Do you think it reasonable for some religious groups to impose special dress 
code on women? Why or why not?

Intercultural Thinking

Do some research to fulfill the following two tasks.

1. Were Hester living in modern China, what attitudes would people hold towards 
her?

2. Make a comparison between Islamic clothing and Jewish clothing. What are the 
ideologies behind them?

Discussion and Exploration

Further Reading

1

 
Title Ethnic Dress

 Summary This article mainly covers three parts: ethnic dress and change, 
ethnic dress and gender, and some selected examples of ethnic dress in 
Asia and the Pacific, Africa, Europe and Eurasia, and the Americas.

2

 
Title How Religion Affects Culture?

 Summary The article gives an introduction to how religion affects life. 
Both positive and negative effects are introduced. In terms of negative 
effects, it changes food habits, alters the dressing trends, affects the 
thinking process, interferes in politics, destroys native culture, and 
neglects the arts. The positive effects lie in that it helps people live 
responsibly, minimizes violence and malpractices, promotes family and 
human growth and development, gives a structure to lifestyle, and helps 
people think beyond worldly existence.



Politics

Unit



Introduction

Introduction

International politics is concerned with relations and interactions among nations. It 
has been identified and named differently by various scholars as international relations, 
world politics, foreign politics, etc. In international politics, nations are primary actors of 
international relations, and national interests are the objective that each nation attempts 
to secure in relations with other nations. The national interests of various nations are 
neither fully compatible nor fully incompatible. The incompatibility of national interests 
of various nations is a source of conflict at the international level. Conflict of interests 
is a reality of international relations, but the existence of conflict compels the nations 
with similar goals of national interests to cooperate with each other for securing conflict 
resolution at the international level. Many political scientists view war as the continuation 
of politics: when diplomacy fails, some nations decide to use force; meanwhile, using 
force also serves as a means of ending a war. A revisit to World War Ⅱ leads to a better 
understanding of international politics.

1

 What may be the cause of a war between or among different countries? What can 
be done to end a war?

2

 What are the factors that lead to World War Ⅱ? What are the major powers involved 
in it?

3

 How much do you know about the political system in the U.K.?

Pre-reading Tasks


228

综合英语



A

Text

Blood, Toil, Tears

and Sweat

Winston Churchill1

1 Sparked by the 1939 Nazi invasion of Poland, World War Ⅱ, also called Second 
World War, lasted six years until the Nazi Germany got defeated by the Allies in 1945. 
It was the biggest and deadliest war in human history, involving virtually every part 
of the world during the years 1939–1945. The principal belligerent countries were 
the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan, and the Allies—France, Great Britain, 
the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. The war was in many respects a 
continuation, after an uneasy 20-year hiatus, of the disputes left unsettled by World 
War Ⅰ. The 40,000,000–50,000,000 deaths incurred in World War Ⅱ make it the 
bloodiest conflict, as well as the largest war, in history.

2 Britain went to war because it saw a German victory as a threat to its security. For 
centuries, Britain had fought to maintain the balance of power in Europe, to ensure 
that no state became overmighty. The Kaiser’s Germany followed Napoleon’s France, 
and preceded Hitler, as a threat to stability.

3 Among those politicians who led their countries and fought Nazi Germany, 
Winston Churchill might be the most influential one in British, or even in world 
history. Contributing to the success of his leadership is his loquacious speeches and 
prolific writings. Churchill used to be a journalist. He has delivered hundreds of 
speeches in front of the public and written volumes of reports and biographers, which 


1 Winston Churchill (1874–1965): a British politician, army officer, and writer. He was Prime Minister of the United 
Kingdom from 1940 to 1945, when he led Britain to victory in the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955.



even won him a Nobel Prize in literature. “Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat” was Winston 
Churchill’s first speech as Prime Minister, delivered before the House of Commons on 
13 May, 1940. Europe was in crisis at the time: three days earlier, Germany had invaded 
France and the Low Countries. Facing only feeble resistance, Hitler’s armies were 
rapidly sweeping westward. Accused of mishandling the war, Neville Chamberlain’s2 
government collapsed, and Churchill was chosen to succeed him.

4 With mounting criticism in the House and in the country of his ineffectual 
leadership, Neville Chamberlain was forced to step down as Prime Minister. He and a 
majority of the Conservative Party favoured Lord Halifax3 as his successor, as did King 
George Ⅵ4. But Halifax declined, realizing that, as a member of the House of Lords, 
his acceptance would give rise to enormous practical and constitutional difficulties.

5 Thus it was that, on 10 May, 1940, Winston Churchill—already 65 years of age—
accepted the King’s commission to form a government. That same day Hitler launched 
his devastating blitzkrieg against Belgium, France, and Holland. In The Gathering 
Storm5, Churchill recorded his thoughts as he went to bed that night: “I felt as if I were 
walking with destiny and that all my past life had been but a preparation for this hour 
and for this trial.”

6 On 13 May, Churchill invited the House of Commons to affirm its support for the 
new Administration. It was a crucial moment for Great Britain. In the country people 
were confused and alarmed. In the House, and especially in the ranks of his own 
Conservative Party, he had many enemies, who viewed him with dislike and distrust. 
With this speech, which was subsequently broadcast to the world with the title “Blood, 
Toil, Tears and Sweat”, Churchill electrified the House and the nation. The message 
was stark: Britain would fight to the death! In the House as he sat down, there was a 
moment of stunned silence, followed by a wholly exceptional standing ovation. The 
following is the transcript of this famous speech.

* * *

2 Neville Chamberlain (1869–1940): served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1937 to 1940. Chamberlain 
is best-known for his foreign policy of appeasement, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 
1938, conceding the German-speaking Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany.

3 Lord Halifax (1881–1959): namely Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, one of the architects of the policy of 
appeasement of Adolf Hitler in 1936–1938, working closely with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.

4 King George Ⅵ (1895–1952): King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 
11 December, 1936 until his death. He became known as a symbol of British determination to win the Second World 
War against Germany.

5 The Gathering Storm: the first in Winston Churchill’s monumental six-volume account of the struggle between the 
Allies in Europe against the Axis during World War Ⅱ.



7 I beg to move,

8 That this House welcomes the formation of a Government representing the united 
and inflexible resolve of the nation to prosecute the war with Germany to a victorious 
conclusion.

9 On Friday evening last I received His Majesty’s Commission to form a new 
Administration. It was the evident wish and will of Parliament and the nation that 
this should be conceived on the broadest possible basis and that it should include all 
parties, both those who supported the late Government and also the parties of the 
Opposition. I have completed the most important part of this task. A War Cabinet6 
has been formed of five Members, representing, with the Opposition Liberals, the 
unity of the nation. The three Party Leaders have agreed to serve, either in the War 
Cabinet or in high executive office. The three Fighting Services have been filled. It 
was necessary that this should be done in one single day, on account of the extreme 
urgency and rigour of events. A number of other positions, key positions, were filled 
yesterday, and I am submitting a further list to His Majesty tonight. I hope to complete 
the appointment of the principal Ministers during tomorrow. The appointment of the 
other Ministers usually takes a little longer, but I trust that, when Parliament meets 
again, this part of my task will be completed, and that the Administration will be 
complete in all respects.

10 I considered it in the public interest to suggest that the House should be 
summoned to meet today. Mr. Speaker agreed, and took the necessary steps, in 
accordance with the powers conferred upon him by the Resolution of the House. At 
the end of the proceedings today, the Adjournment of the House will be proposed 
until Tuesday, 21 May, with, of course, provision for earlier meeting, if need be. 
The business to be considered during that week will be notified to Members at the 
earliest opportunity. I now invite the House, by the Motion which stands in my name, 
to record its approval of the steps taken and to declare its confidence in the new 
Government.

11 To form an Administration of this scale and complexity is a serious undertaking 
in itself, but it must be remembered that we are in the preliminary stage of one of 
the greatest battles in history, that we are in action at many other points in Norway 
and in Holland, that we have to be prepared in the Mediterranean, that the air battle 
is continuous and that many preparations, such as have been indicated by my Hon. 
Friend below the Gangway, have to be made here at home. In this crisis I hope I 

6 War Cabinet: a committee formed by a government in a time of war. It is usually a subset of the full executive 
cabinet of ministers.



may be pardoned if I do not address the House at any length today. I hope that any 
of my friends and colleagues, or former colleagues, who are affected by the political 
reconstruction, will make allowance, all allowance, for any lack of ceremony with 
which it has been necessary to act. I would say to the House, as I said to those who 
have joined this Government: “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.”

12 We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, 
many long months of struggle and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I can say: 
It is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that 
God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the 
dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our 
aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all 
terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is 
no survival. Let that be realized; no survival for the British Empire, no survival for all 
that the British Empire has stood for, no survival for the urge and impulse of the ages, 
that mankind will move forward towards its goal. But I take up my task with buoyancy 
and hope. I feel sure that our cause will not be suffered to fail among men. At this time 
I feel entitled to claim the aid of all, and I say, “Come then, let us go forward together 
with our united strength.”

(1,310 words)

adjournment /..d...nm.nt/ n. a time when a meeting or an official process, especially 
a trial, is stopped for a period of time; the fact of 
stopping a meeting or an official process in this way

administration /.d.m.n..stre...n/ n. the government of a country at a particular time

allowance /..la..ns/ n. something that you consider when deciding what is 
likely to happen, what you should expect, etc.

belligerent /b..l.d..r.nt/ adj. (of a country) fighting a war against another country or 
engaged in war

blitzkrieg /.bl.tskri.ɡ/ n. a sudden military attack intended to win a quick victory

broadcast /.br..dkɑ.st/ vt. & vi. to send out radio or television programs

buoyancy /.b...nsi/ n. a feeling of happiness and a belief that you can deal 
with problems easily

catalogue /.k.t.l.ɡ/ n. a long series of things that happen (usually bad things)

commission /k..m...n/ n. a group of people who have been given the official job 
of finding out about something or controlling something 


Words and Expressions



confer /k.n.f../ vt. & vi. to officially give someone a title, etc. especially as a 
reward for something they have achieved

Conservative /k.n.s..v.t.v/ adj. belonging to or concerned with the Conservative Party 
in Britain

constitutional /.k.nst..tju...n.l/ adj. connected with the constitution of a country or an 
organization 

devastating /.dev.ste.t../ adj. badly damaging or destroying something

entitle /.n.ta.tl/ vt. to give someone the official right to do or have something

exceptional /.k.sep..n.l/ adj. unusual and likely not to happen often

executive /.ɡ.zekj.t.v/ adj. relating to the job of managing a business or organization 
and making decisions

gangway /.ɡ..we./ n. a space between two rows of seats in a theatre, bus, or 
train

grievous /.ɡri.v.s/ adj. very serious and often causing great pain or suffering

hiatus /ha..e.t.s/ n. a break in an activity, or a time during which something 
does not happen or exist

incur /.n.k../ vt. to bring (expenses, costs, losses, debts, etc.) upon 
oneself

ineffectual /..n..fekt.u.l/ adj. not having the ability, confidence, or personal authority 
to get things done

inflexible /.n.fleks.b.l/ adj. unwilling to make even the slightest change in your 
attitudes, plans, etc. 

lamentable /.l.m.nt.b.l/ adj. very unsatisfactory or disappointing

loquacious /l...kwe...s/ adj. talkative or full of trivial conversations

majority /m..d..r.ti/ n. most of the people or things in a group

monstrous /.m.nstr.s/ adj. very wrong, immoral, or unfair

motion /.m....n/ n. a proposal that is made formally at a meeting, and then 
is usually decided on by voting

opposition /..p..z...n/ n. (in some countries such as Britain) the main political 
party in Parliament that is not part of the government

ordeal /...di.l/ n. a terrible or painful experience that continues for a 
period of time

ovation /...ve...n/ n. approval shown by a group of people with clapping

precede /pr..si.d/ vt. to happen or exist before something or someone, or to 
come before something else in a series

preliminary /pr..l.m.n.ri/ adj. happening before something that is more important, 
often in order to prepare for it

proceeding /pr..si.d../ n. an event or a series of things that happen

prolific /pr..l.f.k/ adj. intellectually productive

prosecute /.pr.s.kju.t/ vt. to continue doing something



reconstruction /.ri.k.n.str.k..n/ n. the work that is done to repair the damage to a city, 
industry, etc., especially after a war

resolve /r..z.lv/ n. strong determination to succeed in doing something

stark /stɑ.k/ adj. unpleasantly clear and impossible to avoid

stunned /st.nd/ adj. too surprised or shocked to speak

submit /s.b.m.t/ vt. to give a plan, piece of writing, etc. to someone in 
authority for them to consider or approve

subsequently /.s.bs.kw.ntli/ adv. after an event in the past

successor /s.k.ses./ n. someone who takes a job or position previously held by 
someone else

toil /t..l/ n. hard unpleasant work done over a long period

victorious /v.k.t..ri.s/ adj. having won a victory, or ending in a victory

virtually /.v..t.u.li/ adv. almost

wage /we.d./ vt. & vi. to be involved in a war against someone, or a fight 
against something

Cognitive Reading

 I. Select from the following statements one that best expresses the main 
idea of the text.

a. This speech tells about Churchill’s extreme pleasure in receiving the 
commission from the King.

b. This speech shows Churchill’s reluctance in waging the war.

c. In this speech, Churchill tried to boost the morale of the British people.

d. In this speech, Churchill exposed the difficulties waiting for the British people.

 II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according 
to the text.

1. King George Ⅵ preferred to nominate Lord Halifax as the Prime 
Minister.

2. The House of Commons disapproved of the new Administration 
led by Churchill.


Exercises

T F



3. The House turned a cold shoulder to Churchill’s speech.

4. The War Cabinet was formed solely by the Government.

5. There had been an adjournment of the House for nearly two weeks.

 III. Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. Why did Lord Halifax refuse the late government’s offer to be the new Prime 
Minister?

2. What was the state of mind of the British people just before this speech?

3. What did this new government that Churchill formed represent?

4. What kinds of positions had Churchill already appointed before the speech?

5. Where did the major battle take place at the time of the speech?

 IV. Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. But Halifax declined, realizing that, as a member of the House of Lords, his 
acceptance would give rise to enormous practical and constitutional difficulties. 
(Para. 4)

2. It was the evident wish and will of Parliament and the nation that this should 
be conceived on the broadest possible basis and that it should include all 
parties, both those who supported the late Government and also the parties of 
the Opposition. (Para. 9)

3. To form an Administration of this scale and complexity is a serious undertaking 
in itself, but it must be remembered that we are in the preliminary stage of one 
of the greatest battles in history. (Para. 11)

4. Let that be realized; no survival for the British Empire, no survival for all that 
the British Empire has stood for, no survival for the urge and impulse of the 
ages, that mankind will move forward towards its goal. (Para. 12)

5. I feel sure that our cause will not be suffered to fail among men. (Para. 12)

Critical Reading

Answer the following questions according to the text.

1. There are many disputes concerning Churchill’s leadership style and 
personalities. Do you think he is a great statesman? How do you evaluate his 
merits and demerits?

2. Some say that World War Ⅱ was not inevitable. In other words, it could have 
been avoided. Do you agree with this opinion and why?



3. Churchill delivered this speech when the U.K. was on the brink of devastation 
and on the first day when he took over the government. If the British air force 
lost to the Nazi Germany, what kind of speech might he make in front of the 
Congress and the public? Can you try to imitate this speech and write down a 
few sentences?

Language Enhancement

A

 Vocabulary

 Choose from the given words one that best completes each sentence.

1. In spite of his low approval ratings, a huge ________________ of registered voters 
opposed the recall.

 a. superiority b. mass c. maturity d. majority

2. For people previously resigned to seeing themselves as ________________, the 
centre’s courses can be an inspiration.

 a. ineffectual b. inefficient c. ineffective d. inevitable

3. An honourable man, he is doubtless itching for the legitimacy that a probable 
electoral victory will confer ________________ him.

 a. to b. for c. through d. on

4. Motsumi Baraka’s ________________ reason, beyond his curiosity and want of 
exploration, was helping his family.

 a. principal b. principle c. supreme d. lead

5. We want them to ________________ or do a little bit better than we did.

 a. surpass b. overcome c. exceed d. outclass

6. We, with or without our allies, must now actively ________________ war against 
state-sponsored or state-tolerated terrorism.

 a. execute b. wage c. prosecute d. practice

7. The court is scheduled to hear arguments pertaining to that ________________ on 
17 May.

 a. suggestion b. sentence c. intention d. motion

8. In the dark days after 11 September he became a national symbol of American 
________________.

 a. resolve b. revolve c. dissolve d. absolve

9. The judge said a(n) ________________ hearing and a detention hearing are 
scheduled for 3 p.m.



a. exploratory b. preliminary c. elementary d. preparatory

10. At that rate, inflows will soon ________________ the total of 322 tonnes for the 
whole of 2008.

 a. improve b. superior c. surpass d. outshine

11. The anti-politics mood unleashed by last year’s parliamentary-expenses scandal 
also makes it hard for any politician, however appealing, to ________________ the 
public.

 a. electrify b. startle c. thrill d. stir

B

 Usage and Grammar

 I. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a word taken from the box in its 
appropriate form.

successor acceptance devastating entitle catalogue
executive opposition administration stark subsequent

1. The price level is ________________ determined to satisfy the government’s budget 
constraint.

2. War is mainly a(n) ________________ of blunders.

3. Haydn’s princely employer died in 1790, and his ________________ had no interest 
in a composer’s services.

4. The assignment of legislative, ________________, and judicial powers to different 
institutions is an example of separation of powers.

5. Libya provides a(n) ________________ example of the political consequences of a 
weak state and ambiguous sovereignty.

6. Patience is the calm ________________ that things can happen in a different order 
than the one you have in mind.

7. The decision by the Truman ________________ to drop the bombs illustrates self-
interest going astray.

8. He was also one of many CEOs to sign a brief ________________ Trump’s first 
travel ban earlier this year.

9. The floods ________________ a tenth of Mozambique’s land, and nine-tenths of its 
irrigated areas.

10. Success in any business, no matter what it is, is not a(n) ________________. It has 
to be earned.



II. Each of the following sentences contains one error. You are to find out 
the error and correct it.

1. Like high-speed trading systems, this in it poses grave risks unless human 
commanders can keep up with the faster pace.

2. Yet the findings, appearing online yesterday, in the journal Nature, confirms 
the central role of the damaged region, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, 
which is thought to give rise to social emotions, like compassion.

3. They can take on the task of rebuilding the countries that they came from.

4. “After he won, it was the only time I had seen him speechless,” Boniface said.

5. Only once before have I ever talked in any length with Miss Clark.

6. This either is a feature or a bug depending on one’s point of view.

7. But the American people have never tolerated the use of undercover provocative 
agents or “agents provocateurs” such as is familiar in old Russia or Spain.

8. Articles within the framing of the Constitution indicate that members recognised 
conflicting interests.

9. Even if we do not agree with everything, I trust that together we will be able to 
find prosperity and security.

10. And so I was able to let that known to some of my more feminist friends.

C

 Translation

 I. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, is called to replace Neville 
Chamberlain as British Prime Minister following the latter’s resignation after 
losing a confidence vote in the House of Commons.

2. Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak; courage is also what it takes to 
sit down and listen.

3. They are all optimistic, super-positive people. Survival is the right word because 
they made great lives for themselves.

4. Cersei accepts his marriage proposal, but promises nothing will move forward 
until after the war is won.

5. Although music holds no emotion in itself, it can elicit very deep emotions in 
listeners and performers.

 II. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words or 
phrases given in brackets.

1. 政治家既受到“代言人”角色的限制，又要进一步被他的职位所规定的责任范围所



约束。（circumscribe）

2. 在这个黑白颠倒的世界里，艾希曼似乎并未意识到自己在行凶作恶。（be aware of）

3. 要看一个社会是否公正，就要看它如何分配我们所看重的事物——收入与财富、
义务与权利、权力与机会、公共职务与荣誉。（prize）

4. 清晨六点半开始，在一阵猛烈的军舰炮轰与来自空中的轰炸之后，数千名士兵涉水
登陆，构成了登陆作战的第一个攻击波。（wade）

5. 就在珍珠港事件发生的四个月前，这艘女王似的“奥古斯塔”号军舰曾载着罗斯福
总统驶往纽芬兰一处安静的港湾，与温斯顿·丘吉尔进行第一次历史性会晤。（for 
the first of）

D

 Writing

With the development of military technology, some people worry that the “third” 
world war would be a lethal one to all human beings. However, some people also 
support applying high technology to the military, so that a country can better protect 
itself. What’s your opinion? Write an essay with no less than 300 words to express your 
attitude toward military technology.



1 Perhaps there is something in the water served to prime ministers? Margaret 
Thatcher1 famously claimed she slept for only four hours a night. Churchill at least 
had the excuse that Britain was at war and this was a time of national crisis. He 
recognized that he did not have time to stroll through the gardens of Buckingham 
Palace2, taking in the unseasonably warm May weather, when the threat of invasion 
was being discussed in every meeting. However, instead of winning praise for his 
exemplary work ethic, the new Prime Minister seems to have been met with nothing 
but a series of complaints. As the staff of the Prime Minister’s office officially 
transferred over to Churchill, his Principal Private Secretary3, John “Jock” Colville, 
who would later become one of his most trusted employees, noted a “certain air of 
‘malaise’ about No. 10, which is largely due to the contrast between the fixity of the 
late P.M.’s habits and the inconsequential nature of Winston’s. I suppose we shall get 
used to it; but the prospect of constant late nights—2 a.m. or later—is depressing.”

2 In spite of the late nights, Churchill was also a relatively early riser, though he 
would often conduct business from his bed. Never one to stand on ceremony, he 
would remain there smoking cigars, which the War Office4 operations officer, Sir John 


B

Text

Darkest 

Hours

Anthony McCarten


1 Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013): a British stateswoman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 
1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990.

2 Buckingham Palace: the London residence and administrative headquarters of the monarch of the United 
Kingdom.

3 Principal Private Secretary: a senior official in the British Civil Service who serves the Prime Minister of the United 
Kingdom.

4 War Office: a department of the British government responsible for the administration of the British army between 
1857 and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Defence.



Sinclair, recalled as making his “stomach queasy at that time in the morning [7 a.m.]. 
I laid the map on his tummy, when it stopped wobbling, and told him how the British 
were disposed on the line of the Dyle5.” Behaviour such as this was nothing new for 
Churchill, as the staff at Chartwell6 knew all too well.

3 To ensure that he could function late into the night, Churchill religiously took a 
two-hour afternoon nap, which would then be followed by a hot bath (the second of 
the day) at 7 p.m. This had to be, as Clementine’s7 biographer Sonia Purnell describes, 
“two-thirds full and heated to precisely 98 °F, rising to 104 °F once he had plunged in… 
he did not like to lose water, but was fond of somersaulting in the tub—an alarming 
manoeuvre that caused gallons of displaced water to seep down onto the coats of 
visitors in the cloakroom below”. He would vigorously scrub himself with a brush 
and dictate speeches and memoranda to whichever awkwardly placed secretary was 
waiting outside the door. A former secretary, Chips Gemmell, recalled how she would 
be summoned to the bathroom door, where she would discreetly identify herself by a 
cough. Churchill would shout, “Don’t come in!”—so she would dutifully “stand outside 
and you’d hear these wonderful bathroom noises, and you’d envisage the sponge being 
squeezed over the head and the sounds of water trickling down into nether regions. 
And occasionally he’d call out ‘Don’t go away!’ and you’d say, ‘no, no I’m still here’ 
and the sounds of bathing would go on and sometimes…one really wasn’t needed, 
he’d forgotten what he’d wanted to say.” Churchill’s biographer Roy Jenkins noted an 
almost “porpoise-like quality about him, which meant that one of his keenest physical 
pleasures, second only to alcohol, was submerging himself in either hot bathwater or 
lukewarm seawater”.

4 When he emerged from his beloved constitutional, he had no qualms about 
walking the connecting corridors of Admiralty House8 and No. 10 Downing Street9, as 
his daughter Mary Soames recounted, “robed like a Roman emperor in his bath towel, 
proceeding dripping from his bathroom across the main highway to his bedroom”. 
Staff should have counted themselves lucky that he chose to use a towel. When relaxed 
in the sanctum that was Chartwell, nudity was a frequent occurrence. As Purnell 
describes, “[f]ollowing his ablutions, Winston’s valet would towel him dry, after which 

5 Dyle: a river in central Belgium, the left tributary of the Rupel. It is 86 kilometers long.

6 Chartwell: a country house near Westerham, Kent, in Southeast England. For over 40 years it was the home of 
Winston Churchill.

7 Clementine (1885–1977): whose full name was Clementine Ogilvy Spencer-Churchill, was the wife of Winston 
Churchill and a life peer in her own right.

8 Admiralty House: opened in 1788 and until 1964 was the official residence of the First Lords of the Admiralty.

9 Downing Street: a street in London that houses the official residences and offices of the Prime Minister of the 
United Kingdom and the Chancellor of the Exchequer.



he refused to put on a dressing gown; if he wished to go to another room he would 
do so undressed. New members of staff would be shocked to see a very pink, sixteen-
stone naked man with stooping shoulders scurrying towards them exclaiming ‘Coming 
through, don’t look!’” The alternative announcement Elizabeth Gilliatt, another 
former secretary, recalled—“I am coming out in a state of nature, you’d better watch 
it!”—would see secretaries fleeing down the corridors as fast as their heels would carry 
them.

5 When eventually he did decide to get dressed, exorbitant bills were run up at 
Army & Navy stores thanks to Churchill’s insistence that only the finest pale-pink silk 
underclothes would do, on account of his delicate skin. Jock Colville, one of Churchill’s 
private secretaries, remembers they made him look “just like a rather nice pig”. Silk 
vests were paired with gloriously ostentatious silk dressing gowns embroidered with 
dragons or flowers. The legend of his lavish tastes and eccentric habits even spread to 
Berlin, where Joseph Goebbels noted in his diary: “A book on Churchill reports that 
he drinks too much and wears silk underwear. He dictates messages in the bath or in 
his underpants, a startling image which the Fuehrer finds hugely amusing.”

6 It can’t have hurt Churchill to have the Nazis consider him a joke—for it is no bad 
thing to be underestimated by one’s enemy. But those who knew him maintain that 
he was not a drunk. He had been drinking alcohol for so long that his tolerance was 
remarkable—with just an occasional slip. When asked once how he managed to drink 
during the day his reply was simply “Practice”.

7 So what was his actual drinking regime?

8 He would have his first, albeit very weak, whisky and soda around an hour after 
finishing his morning tray of bacon and eggs. During the war, his hatred of condensed 
milk was so strong that he stopped drinking tea as a traditional accompaniment to 
breakfast and replaced it with a glass of sweet German white wine: not, then, the 
usual breakfast tray. A bottle of Pol Roger champagne would be consumed at lunch, 
and another bottle at dinner, chased by a fine port or brandy digestif into the wee 
hours. He would maintain this regime every day throughout his long life, with few 
exceptions. How could such a man guide the country through its most perilous hours 
in this state, you might well join the Nazis in asking?

9 This iconic image of a cigar-chomping poet with a glass of scotch always in 
one hand—one Churchill himself did much to promote—may seem amusing now, 
but on Sunday, 12 May, 1940, his spotted reputation was no laughing matter. To his 
Conservative colleagues he was a different kind of joke—one whose last military 
campaign had ended with disaster in the Dardanelles, and one who surrounded 



himself with courtier friends from “raffish worlds”. With this in mind, Lord Hankey, 
Minister Without Portfolio10, wrote to fellow appeaser Sir Samuel Hoare11 to tell him 
how upon visiting the Admiralty:

10 I found complete chaos this morning. No one was gripping the war 
in its crisis. The Dictator [Churchill], instead of dictating, was engaged in a 
sordid wrangle with the politicians of the left about the secondary offices. NC 
[Chamberlain] was in a state of despair about it all. The only hope lies in the 
solid core of Churchill, Chamberlain and Halifax, but whether the wise old 
elephants [Chamberlain and Halifax] will ever be able to hold the Rogue Elephant 
[Churchill], I doubt.

11 Churchill was conscious of how dangerous these opinions could be. His every 
move was being scrutinised, and if he was to remain as Prime Minister he would have 
to find a way of winning over the dissenters.

12 Public support for him was extremely strong. It was almost a year since the 
newspapers had begun calling for his inclusion in the Government and posters 
appeared around London stating: “What price Churchill?” But he needed more 
than the support of the nation to succeed. Charm offensives had been launched the 
previous day with his gracious letters to Chamberlain and Halifax upon succeeding to 
the premiership. After all, Chamberlain was still leader of the Conservative Party and 
so, in spite of Labour opposition, Lord President of the Council.

13 Another kindness to Neville was the Churchill’s decision not to move immediately 
into No. 10 Downing Street. Instead, Winston would stay at the Admiralty for another 
month to enable Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlain to move themselves out gradually. 
Churchill did everything he could think of to smooth over fractious party 
relationships, especially as he was scheduled to speak to the House of Commons for 
the first time as Prime Minister the following day, 13 May.

14 General Ismay recalled how:

15 Two or three days after he became Prime Minister, I walked with him from 
Downing Street to the Admiralty. A number of people waiting outside the private 
entrance greeted him with cries of “Good luck, Winnie. God bless you.” He was 
visibly moved, and as soon as we were inside the building, he dissolved into tears. 

10 Minister Without Portfolio: either a government minister with no specific responsibilities or a minister who does 
not head a particular ministry.

11 Sir Samuel Hoare (1880–1959): a senior British Conservative politician who served in various Cabinet posts in the 
Conservative and National governments of the 1920s and 1930s.



“Poor people,” he said, “poor people. They trust me, and I can give them nothing 
but disaster for quite a long time.”

16 With the task of forming a Government out of the way, Winston’s thoughts now 
turned to what he could offer not just his fellow politicians, but also the nation in its 
darkest hour.

(1,536 words)


Words and Expressions

albeit /..l.bi..t/ conj. used to add information that reduces the force or 
importance of what you have just said

appeaser /..pi.z./ n. someone who tries to bring peace by acceding to 
demands

chomp /t..mp/ vt. & vi. to eat something

courtier /.k..t../ n. someone in the past with an important position at a 
royal court

digestif /da..d.est.f/ n. a strong alcoholic drink that is drunk after a meal

discreetly /d..skri.tli/ adv. in a careful and prudent manner, especially in order to 
keep something confidential or to avoid embarrassment 

disposed /d..sp..zd/ adj. willing or prepared to do something

dissolve /d..z.lv/ vi. & vt. to start laughing or crying

embroider /.m.br..d./ vt. & vi. to decorate cloth by sewing a pattern, picture, or words 
on it with coloured threads

envisage /.n.v.z.d./ vt. to think that something is likely to happen in the future

exemplary /.ɡ.zempl.ri/ adj. excellent and providing a good example for people to 
follow

exorbitant /.ɡ.z..b.t.nt/ adj. (price, amount of money, etc.) much higher than it should 
be

fractious /.fr.k..s/ adj. becoming angry very easily

gallon /.ɡ.l.n/ n. a unit for measuring liquids, equal to eight pints (In 
Britain this is 4.55 litres, and in the U.S. it is 3.79 litres.)

grip /ɡr.p/ vt. to have a strong effect on someone or something

inconsequential

 /.n.k.ns..kwen..l/ adj. not important

lavish /.l.v../ adj. large, impressive, or expensive

lukewarm /.lu.k.w..m/ adj. (food, liquid, etc.) slightly warm and often not as hot or 
cold as it should be



malaise /m..le.z/ n. a general feeling that you are slightly ill or not happy in 
your life

manoeuvre /m..nu.v./ n. a skillful or careful movement that you make, for example 
in order to avoid something or go through a narrow space

nether /.nee./ adj. lower down, often used humorously

offensive /..fens.v/ n. a planned military attack involving large forces over a 
long period

ostentatious /..st.n.te...s/ adj. seeming to be very expensive and designed to make 
people think that its owner must be very rich

porpoise /.p..p.s/ n. a sea animal that looks similar to a dolphin and breathes 
air

port /p..t/ n. strong sweet Portuguese wine that is usually drunk after 
a meal

premiership /.premi...p/ n. the period when someone is Prime Minister

qualm /kwɑ.m/ n. a feeling of slight worry or doubt because you are not 
sure that what you are doing is right

queasy /.kwi.zi/ adj. feeling that you are going to vomit

raffish /.r.f../ adj. behaving or dressing in a way which is not respected by 
many people but which is still confident and attractive

regime /re...i.m/ n. a special plan of food, exercise, etc. that is intended to 
improve your health

religiously /r..l.d..sli/ adv. carefully; seriously

rogue /r..ɡ/ adj. not behaving in the usual or accepted way and often 
causing trouble

sanctum /.s..kt.m/ n. a private place or room that only a few important people 
are allowed to enter

scrutinise /.skru.t.na.z/ vt. to examine someone or something very carefully

scurry /.sk.ri/ vi. to move quickly with short steps, especially because 
you are in a hurry

slip /sl.p/ n. a small mistake

somersault /.s.m.s..lt/ vi. to turn over completely in the air

stoop /stu.p/ vi. to bend your body forward and down

stroll /str..l/ vi. to walk somewhere in a slow relaxed way

towel /.ta..l/ vt. to dry yourself with a towel

tummy /.t.mi/ n. stomach

unseasonably /.n.si.z.n.bli/ adv. used for saying that the weather is warmer, colder, etc. 
than usual at a particular time of year

wee /wi./ adj. early in the morning, just after 12 o’clock at night

wobble /.w.b.l/ vi. & vt. to move unsteadily from side to side, or make something 
do this

wrangle /.r..ɡ.l/ n. a long and complicated argument



Discuss the following questions. 

1. What is the image of Winston Churchill constructed in Text B?

2. What are the similarities and differences of the images of Churchill in the two 
texts?

Reflective Work

1. Do you think the personality and disposition of a politician in private will be 
reflected in his/her performance in dealing with political issues?

2. Despite telling the story of the same person within a close time span, the 
styles of the two texts in this unit differ from each other. What are the major 
differences between the two and why?

3. Find more videos of Churchill’s speeches online. Appreciate Churchill’s 
exquisite skills in delivering speeches and try to summarize some of the points 
that impress you most.

Intercultural Thinking

1. Churchill is one of the most influential politicians in the U.K. At the same time, 
he is also a highly-appreciated political figure in China. What do you think are 
the reasons?

2. What was China’s role in World War Ⅱ?


Exercises

Discussion and Exploration



Further Reading

1

 
Title What Is International Politics?

 Summary This article makes an introduction to international politics 
as an academic field. It presents the definition of international politics, 
which is also referred to as international relations, and the subtle 
distinction between these two terms. A brief survey of the historical 
developments is also provided.

2

 
Title “An Appeaser Is One Who Feeds a Crocodile, Hoping It 
Will Eat Him Last.”

 Summary In the mid-1930s the word “appeasement” had not yet taken on 
the taint of cowardice and ignominy that later events would give it. But as 
the Great Depression took its toll around the world and Adolf Hitler rose 
to power in Germany, Churchill and a very few others saw that this policy 
was becoming dangerous.