Preface
The study of airborne transmission has been limited to the plausible transmission route of these highly infectious respiratory pathogens in epidemiological investigations. Meanwhile, the importance of the pathogen spread via bioaerosols (i.e. airborne route) has not been awakened until the frequent occurrences of those respiratory-related pandemics (i.e. SARS, MERS, etc.). With the escalating urgency to contain the wide and fast spread of contagious respiratory-related bioaerosols globally, any essential knowledge from a multi-disciplinary field is in great demand to mitigate the outbreaks. Although the epidemiological study is often solid and accurate to restrict the fast disease transmission, they require a great deal of clinical data or epidemiological data to support their contributions. This could be often delayed at the early stage of an emerging pandemic. Alternatively, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a fast-rising approach to investigate and predict the transport characteristics of airborne particles or droplets via its strong capability of dynamic analysis on particle travel patterns and direct visualisation of their trajectories in the air. From the perspective of fluid mechanics, the entire transmission cycle of respiratory disease transmission can be divided into four main stages, from the infectious host's exhalation, suspension of the pathogen-bearing droplets and aerosols in the air, inhalation by the susceptible individuals, and ultimate deposition of the in the human respiratory system. For this comprehensive transmission cycle, each stage can be carefully mediated by various complex flow phenomena, which can be generally described as air-mucous interaction, dynamic distribution of droplets, respiratory jet flow, droplet evaporation, flow-induced aerosol suspension and dispersion, etc. Such highly participated fluid phenomena and mechanisms in each transmission process bring insight and opportunity for the CFD method to contribute its powerful modelling capability for the disease transmission analysis.
In addition, as the term "bio" additionally endows the biological meanings for these aerosol particles, understanding the biological parameter and characteristics of pathogen-bearing aerosols (i.e. bioaerosols) is essential. Such important parameters would all ultimately affect the infectious risk of the individuals in the indoor space, including the stability, viability, survivability and etc. These biological attributes of the respiratory droplets could be further integrated into the modelling processes and risk assessments to provide an enhanced understanding of the exposure and infection risk analysis of the bioaerosol transmission.
The purpose of this book is to provide an in-depth understanding of how CFD application becomes an excellent analysing and modelling tool to support the research community, government and regulatory agency for the investigation, mitigation and prevention of the respiratory-related pandemic, especially when the solid epidemiological data is insufficient with the newly emerging respiratory disease. With the solid knowledge being obtained from the entire book content, a computational-based virtual platform is proposed and demonstrated, aiming to provide a quantitative and holistic analysis of the bioaerosol infection risk assessment from source to sink.
The book begins with an introduction in Chapter 1 to provide an overview of the severity of the respiratory disease, its major transmission routes, and its deadly consequence on human health and the global economy. It aims to initiate the awareness for the reader to consider the importance of the solid and accurate analysis and investigation of respiratory disease transmission.
The second chapter devoted to bringing the readers with fundamental understand- ings in relation to the definition and the key characteristics of the respiratory-related bioaerosol. The key focus of this chapter is to provide the basic description of the dynamic mechanism of the droplet motion in the air and the corresponding physical and biological properties, which is part of the cornerstone for the subsequent modelling procedure.
The respiratory-based bioaerosol infections are further introduced in Chapter 3. In this chapter, the potential bioaerosol source in various environments (i.e. indoor and outdoor) for the bioaerosol growth and spread are represented, followed by the basic description of how the pathogens interact with the human respiratory system. Based on these findings, the human inter-clearance mechanism and current control strategies are demonstrated.
With the fundamental of the bioaerosol and the transmission being carefully introduced, the essential modelling approach in the CFD method to restore the comprehensive disease transmission investigation is introduced in Chapter 4. This chapter brings an important idea of how respiratory-related problems are solved with the traditional CFD workflow, and the corresponding numerical method required to solve complicated flow-particle interactions are also carefully represented (turbulence model, meshing, discretisation scheme, etc.).
To achieve a solid prediction of the disease transmission scenario, the key challenges in each disease transmission stage should be carefully solved by breaking down those critical processes. Before analysing the entire transmission process, the deepened understanding of the surrounding environment from the host is of great importance. Therefore, as the major source of bioaerosol, the surrounding environment of humans is carefully investigated in Chapter 5, especially in the micro-environment. It aims to bring the readers with the fundamentals of these dominating factors to affect the human micro-environment and the corresponding numerical approaches to model that. As human is the leading factor to affect the surrounding environment, the modelling of the computational manikin model is also important. To obtain a computationally efficient investigation, the recommended optimisation method of the manikin model is given in Chapter 5.
The effect of the influential factors on bioaerosol transport is described in Chapter 6. Two contaminant modelling approaches are introduced in this chapter, namely the Eulerian method and the Lagrangian method. An important focus of this chapter is to distinguish the major difference between these two methods in the context of the fluid dynamic and the practical applications. In addition, the major difficulties for the investigation of bioaerosol transport in the indoor environment are introduced, such as interpreting the complex flow phenomena induced by the ventilation and human thermal plume. The analysis could be more challenging if many occupants share a very limited space indoors. Staying in these such enclosed environments with multifarious affecting factors could potentially make the analysis more complicated than expected. Based on the findings, several numerical case studies are represented to demonstrate the importance of the influential factors in affecting the particle transport characteristics in the densely occupied environment (thermal plume, ventilation, etc.).
Chapter 7 further introduces the effect of the ambient conditions (i.e. humidity and temperature) on the physicochemical process of respiratory droplets before the inhalation. This chapter is particularly critical as the physical fundamentals of the pathogen-bearing particles are vastly dependent on the dynamic size distribution owing to the evaporation process. The conventional experimental study could hardly capture the dynamic properties of the droplets due to the devoid of advanced techniques, whereas the CFD method could effectively restore this complicated physicochemical process and provide a clear visualisation of the droplet size variation. Notwithstanding, describing the biological attributes of the pathogen-bearing particle is still a big challenge for the CFD method. To further account for the biological attribute of the pathogens, the integration of numerical method and mathematical risk assessment model is represented in this chapter. Two widely adopted risk assessment models (i.e. Wells-Riley and Dose-response model) are carefully introduced and demonstrated with the numerical case studies, respectively.
Chapter 8 represents the comprehensive workflow of how the CFD method is being used for deposition quantification in the human respiratory system, including the nasal cavity and lower respiratory airway. Before particle deposition, particle inhalability is an essential criterion when evaluating the infection and exposure risk of the individuals. For a stationary individual, this parameter is often the function of the particle size. In this chapter, the effect of long-overlooked human factors, human motion on particle inhalability is investigated. After that, deposition quantification in the human respiratory system is further studied. To obtain a solid quantification, the re-construction or simplification of the airway geometry is required. This chapter provides the comprehensive modelling workflow of the human airway, and the in-depth knowledge of the deposition pattern in the respiratory system, aiming to bring the reader with the fundamentals of particle deposition mechanism. Further integration of particle suspension in the air to the deposition in the human nasal cavity is numerically demonstrated to reveal the CFD method's strong multi-coupling and multi-scale modelling capability.
Chapter 9 further demonstrates the powerful modelling capability of the CFD approach and its value for the general environmental practice, including the risk assessment, control strategy and prevention. The conjunction of the CFD approach and the mathematical risk assessment could provide a solid, direct and flexible analysis of the individual infection risks in the enclosed environment. Based on the quantifiable results obtained from the risk assessment framework, the control strategy can be further proposed. In this chapter, fan-driven indoor vortex ventilation is carefully introduced, aiming to broaden the insight of the innovative design of the ventilation schemes. Apart from the CFD application for risk assessment and control strategy, it could also be used for the regulation of effective precautionary measures. The major purpose of this chapter is to strongly demonstrate that the CFD method has a powerful modelling capability for solving and optimising the general environmental practice.
Chapter 10 is a brief exploration of the future trends and more advanced modelling techniques. In this chapter, the potential research direction or field is proposed based on the authors' own insight, which aims to stimulate the further development and advancement of the modelling capability and the comprehensive workflow of the disease transmission analysis. It is expected that in the near future, the rapid development of the CFD method and rising computational science could bring considerable benefits in solving the respiratory-related problem in the context of the fluid dynamic. Among the advances, the conjunction of the machine learning (ML) with the current virtual-based risk assessment platform can be clearly foreseen. It is believe that the blossoming development of the ML would bring fresh insights for fluid mechanics research, especially for indoor disease transmission analysis.
Yihuan Yan
Jiyuan Tu
