Final PDF to printer chapter Environmental Interrelationships 1 CHAPTER OUTLINE 环境交叉关系 The Important Role of Wolves in Yellowstone 1.1 The Nature of Environmental Science 1.2 Emerging Global Issues GOING GREEN: Individual Decisions Matter 5 FOCUS ON: Campus Sustainability Initiative 6 SCIENCE, POLITICS, & POLICY: National Security Policy and Climate Change 13 ISSUES & ANALYSIS: Government Regulation and Personal Property 14 本章概要 黄石国家公园狼的重要作用 ..................环境科学的特性 ..................新兴的全球问题 走向绿色：个体的决定.... 关注：推动可持续发展校园活动.... 科学、政治与政策：国家安全政策与气候变化...... 问题与分析：政府法规与个人财产...... Environmental science is the study of interrelationships between humans and the natural world. This farmer in Uganda has cleared a portion of the original forest to create this small farm, which supplies food and income for the family. 环境科学是研究人与自然世界相互关系的学科。乌干达农民砍掉一片原始森林建成 小农场，以为家庭提供食物和收入。 OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: . Recognize that the field of environmental science includes social, political, and economic aspects in addition to science. . Describe examples that illustrate the interrelated nature of environmental science. . Understand why most social and political decisions are made with respect to political jurisdictions but environmental problems do not necessarily coincide with these human-made boundaries. 学习目标 阅读完本章后，你应该能够： . Understand the concept of sustainability. . Recognize that human population growth contributes to environmental problems. . Recognize that people rely on the services provided by ecosystems. . Understand that food security is an issue for many people in the less- developed world. . Recognize that there are governance issues that make it difficult to solve environmental problems. ....认识到环境科学涉及社会、政治和经济等方面，而不仅仅是科学问题 ....列举体现环境科学交叉关系特性的实例 ....了解为什么大多数社会及政治决策是基于政治权限做出的，但是环境问题 并不一定与这些人为的边界相符合 ....了解..可持续性..概念 ....认识到人口增长会引发环境问题 . Recognize that the quality of the environment has an important impact on human health. . Understand that personal security incorporates economic, political, cultural, social, and environmental aspects. . Describe environmental impacts of globalization. . Recognize the central role energy use has on environmental problems. ....认识人类依靠生态系统提供的服务 ....了解食品安全是欠发达地区很多人面临的问题 ....认识到政府管理问题会造成解决环境问题的困难 ....认识到环境质量对人类健康有重要影响 ....了解安全涉及经济、政治、文化、社会和环境等方面 ..叙述全球化的环境影响 ....认识到能源利用对环境问题的重要作用 1 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 1 9/12/14 10:16 AM Final PDF to printer The Important Role of Wolves in Yellowstone Early explorers of the lands west of the Mississippi River told of a place with fantastic geysers, mud pots, and other thermal features. They also told of abundant wildlife and rivers filled with fish. After several official government expeditions confirmed these tales, Yellowstone National Park was established as the world’s first national park in 1872. As more people settled in the west and ranches and farms were established, there was pressure from farmers and ranchers as well as hunters to reduce the number of predator species on public lands in the west. It was also a generally held idea that predators reduced the numbers of elk, deer, and other species preferred by hunters. Thus the U.S. Congress in 1914 provided funding to eliminate wolves and other predators on public lands including national parks. By 1926 wolves had been eliminated from Yellowstone. The lack of wolves led to a cascade of unintended consequences: . Since hunting of species other than predators was prohibited in the park, the population of elk increased. In addition, coyotes, which are normally killed by wolves, increased greatly. By 1935, park managers felt that overgrazing by the large population of elk was beginning to destroy the park’s habitat. Therefore, a program of harvesting elk, bison, and pronghorns was instituted to protect the habitat. This program was discontinued in the 1960s as better knowledge of the habitat indicated that it was not overgrazed. . Coyotes greatly reduced the number of small mammal species such as mice, squirrels, and rabbits. . The number of pronghorn antelope also decreased because coyotes killed newborn pronghorns. . Populations of cottonwood and willows along streams declined substantially due to browsing by elk. Eventually, as park managers and biologists began to understand the profound changes caused by the elimination of wolves, the decision was made to reintroduced wolves to Yellowstone National Park. The initial introduction of 31 wolves in 1995 and 1996 has resulted in a current population of about 100 wolves. Several changes to the Yellowstone ecosystem can be directly attributed to the alterations brought about by the return of wolves: . Wolves kill and eat elk. This has resulted in a significant reduction in the size of the elk herd from about 19,000 prior to wolf reintroduction to less than 4,000 now. . The presence of wolves also has modified the behavior of elk. Because they must be more vigilant and move about more because of the predatory behavior of wolves, elk spend less time feeding on willow, cottonwood, and aspen. Both the change in behavior and the reduced size of the elk herd have allowed the regeneration of stands of cottonwood and willow along rivers. This has in turn resulted in increased numbers of beavers that use these streamside trees for food. The dams built by beavers tend to slow the flow of water and increase the recharge of groundwater. Furthermore, the stands of willow along the banks of streams cool the water and improve fish habitat. The stands of willow also provide needed habitat for some songbirds. . Wolves directly compete with coyotes and kill them if they have the opportunity. Thus, since the reintroduction of wolves the coyote population has fallen significantly. There is evidence that the populations of the prey of coyotes—voles, mice, and other rodents—have increased. The increased availability of this food source has resulted in an increase in the number of foxes, hawks, and owls. Thus, it is fair to say that the reintroduction of the wolf has changed how water flows through the landscape and has led to increased populations of many organisms—willow, cottonwood, beaver, songbirds, foxes, certain rodents, hawks, and owls; and to the decline in the population of other organisms—coyote and elk. Truly this is a story that illustrates the point made by the early naturalist John Muir (1838–1914)—Tug on anything at all and you’ll find it connected to everything else in the universe. Wolves reintroduced Elk decline Willows increase Beavers increase CHAPTER 1 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 2 10/6/14 3:17 PM Environmental Interrelationships 3 Interrelatedness Is a Core Concept A central factor that makes the study of environmental science so interesting/frustrating/challenging is the high degree of interrelatedness among seemingly unrelated factors. The opening story about the relationship between wolves and elk in Yellowstone National Park illustrates the theme of interrelatedness very well. The absence of wolves led to an increase in elk and coyotes but to a decrease in beaver, streamside stands of willow and cottonwood, and habitat for some birds. The return of wolves resulted in a decrease in elk numbers and changes in elk behavior that allowed the vegetation to rebound and for beaver to increase in numbers. However, this interrelatedness theme does not just relate to the animal and plant actors in this drama. There is an important human-dominated drama as well that involves philosophical, economic, and political actors. For example, although many biologists and environmentalists argued that it was important to restore the wolf to its former habitat for biological reasons, others looked at the issue in terms of ethics. They felt that humans had an ethical obligation to restore wolves to their former habitat. While park managers could easily see the problems created by a lack of wolves and a huge elk population, they could not simply make the decision to bring back the wolf. A long history of controlling animals that could prey on 1.1 The Nature of Environmental Science Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field that includes both scientific and social aspects of human impact on the world. The word environment is usually understood to mean the surrounding conditions that affect organisms. In a broader definition, environment is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. In turn, all organisms including people affect many components in their environment. Science is an approach to studying the natural world that involves formulating hypotheses and then testing them to see if the hypotheses are supported or refuted. However, because humans are organized into complex societies, environmental science also must deal with politics, social organization, economics, ethics, and philosophy. Thus, environmental science is a mixture of traditional science, individual and societal values, economic factors, and political realities that are important to solving environmental problems. (See figure 1.1 .) Although environmental science as a field of study is evolving, it is rooted in the early history of civilization. Many ancient cultures expressed a reverence for the plants, animals, and geographic features that provided them with food, water, and transportation. These features are still appreciated by many modern people. Although the following quote from Henry David Thoreau (1817–62) is over a century old, it is consistent with current environmental philosophy: I wish to speak a word for Nature, for absolute freedom and wildness, as contrasted with a freedom and culture merely civil . . . to regard man as an inhabitant, or a part and parcel of Nature, rather than a member of society. The current interest in the state of the environment began with philosophers like Thoreau and scientists like Rachel Carson and received emphasis from the organization of the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970. Sub sequent Earth Days reaffirmed this commitment. As a result of this continuing interest in the state of the world and how people both affect it and are affected by it, environmental science is now a standard course or program at many colleges. It is also included in the curriculum of high schools. Most of the concepts covered by environmental science courses had previously been taught in ecology, conservation, biology, or geography courses. Environmental science incorporates the scientific aspects of these courses with input from the social sciences, such as economics, sociology, and political science, creating a new interdisciplinary field. FIGURE 1.1 Environmental Science The field of environmental science involves an understanding of scientific principles, economic influences, and political action. Environmental decisions often involve compromise. A decision that may be supportable from a scientific or economic point of view may not be supportable from a political point of view without modification. Often political decisions relating to the environment may not be supported by economic analysis. eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 3 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer Final PDF to printer livestock had to be overcome. Ranchers strongly opposed the reintroduction of wolves and saw this as an economic issue. If wolves left the park and killed their livestock, they would lose money. The farm lobby in Congress is very strong and fought long and hard to prevent the reintroduction. After a lengthy period of hearings and many compromises—including a fund to pay ranchers for cattle killed by wolves—the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was authorized to proceed with the reintroductions. Thus, the interconnectedness theme associated with the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone also applies to social, economic, and political realms of human activity. An Ecosystem Approach The idea of interrelatedness is at the core of the ecosystem concept. An ecosystem is a region in which the organisms and the physical environment form an interacting unit. Within an ecosystem there is a complex network of interrelationships. For example, weather affects plants, plants use minerals in the soil and are food for animals, animals spread plant seeds, plants secure the soil, and plants evaporate water, which affects weather. Some ecosystems have easily recognized boundaries. Examples are lakes, islands, floodplains, watersheds separated by mountains, and many others. Large ecosystems always include smaller ones. A large watershed, for example, may include a number of lakes, rivers, streams, and a variety of terrestrial ecosystems. A forest ecosystem may cover hundreds of square kilometers and include swampy areas, openings, and streams as subsystems within it. Often the boundaries between ecosystems are indistinct, as in the transition from grassland to desert. Grassland gradually becomes desert, depending on the historical pattern of rainfall in an area. Thus, defining an ecosystem boundary is often a matter of practical convenience. However, an ecosystem approach is important to dealing with environmental problems. The task of an environmental scientist is to recognize and understand the natural interactions that take place and to integrate these with the uses humans must make of the natural world. Political And Economic Issues Most social and political decisions are made with respect to political jurisdictions, but environmental issues do not necessarily coincide with these artificial political boundaries. For example, Yellowstone National Park is located in the northwest corner of Wyoming. (See figure 1.2 .) Therefore, the citizens of the bordering states—Montana and Idaho—as well as the citizens of Wyoming were involved in arguing for or against the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone. Citizens recognized that once wolves returned to the park they would migrate to areas surrounding the park. Similarly, air pollution may involve several local units of government, several states or provinces, and even different nations. Air pollution generated in China affects air quality in western coastal states in the United States and in British Columbia, Canada. On a more local level, the air pollution generated in Juarez, Mexico, causes problems in the neighboring city of El Paso, Texas. But the issue is more than air quality and human CHAPTER 1 FIGURE 1.2 Environmental Issues often Involve Several Political Jurisdictions The location of Yellowstone National Park in the northwest corner of Wyoming means that citizens of Wyoming and the adjoining states of Idaho and Montana are affected by decisions about the park. In addition, there are several national forests, refuges, and an Indian reservation located near the park. These entities may have goals that differ from those of Yellowstone National Park. Source: National Park Service. health. Lower wage rates and less strict environmental laws have influenced some U.S. industries to move to Mexico for economic advantages. Mexico and many other developing nations are struggling to improve their environmental image and need the money generated by foreign investment to improve the conditions and the environment in which their people live. 1.2 Emerging Global Issues Imagine a world in which environmental change threatens people’s health, physical security, material needs, and social cohesion. This is a world beset by increasingly intense and frequent storms and by rising sea levels. Some people experience extensive flooding, eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 4 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer Going Green Individual Decisions Matter Note to Reader Because environmental science is involved in highlighting problems, the many improvements and positive changes are often overlooked. To call attention to these bits of good news, this book will describe actions that have had a positive environmental impact. Each chapter will have a “Going Green” feature that highlights a particular green initiative. In addition, at the end of each chapter there is an “Acting Green” feature which suggests changes that you can make that collectively can help lead to a sustainable society. There is a growing awareness that sustainability needs to be a core value if future generations are to inherit an Earth worth having. Those who support green initiatives are motivated in many different ways. Some are motivated by ethical or moral beliefs that they should “live lightly on the land.” Some are motivated by the economic realities of rising energy costs or the costs associated with correcting environmental mistakes. Some simply want to be seen as having green values. Regardless of their motivation, people around the world are making green decisions. Organizers of conferences and concerts are buying carbon credits to offset the impact of their events. Companies have discovered that consumers seek green products. Governments have passed laws that encourage their citizens to live more sustainably. Ultimately, however, green initiatives depend on individuals making everyday decisions. How many pairs of shoes do I really need? Do I really need the latest electronic gadget? Should I buy products that are produced locally? In the final analysis, most daily decisions have an environmental impact and you have a role to play. Ten Things You Can Do To Protect Your Environment 1. Reduce your driving (walk, bike, take public transit, carpool). Choose a more efficient car. 2. Do not leave your TV, computers, DVD players on standby. They are using electricity on standby. 3. Recycle everything you can: newspapers, cans, glass bottles, motor oil, etc. Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV set for 3 hours or to light one 100-watt bulb for 20 hours. In 2011, 65 percent of aluminum cans were recycled. 4. Do not leave water running needlessly. Install a water-efficient showerhead and run only full loads in the washing machine or dishwasher. It takes energy to heat the water used by these devices. 5. Do not dispose of gasoline, oil, or weed killers and other lawn and garden pesticides down the drain, into surface water, onto the ground, or in the trash. Check with your local household hazardous waste collection agency for safe disposal of these types of products. 6. Eat a locally produced diet. Grow your own food or support local farmers, natural food stores, and food co-ops. 7. Take unwanted, reusable items to a charitable organization or thrift shop. They don’t go to a landfill and someone else is able to use them. 8. Buy in bulk when you can and avoid excess packaging. Even recyclable packaging requires energy and resources to create. Also look for refillable containers. 9. Read labels on pesticides, cleaners, paints, and other products. Choose those with fewer hazardous contents. 10. Become an informed and active citizen. Vote; participate in public forums; get involved in local, state, national or international environmental concerns! This list is only a start. Go to the website earth911.com . How many additional activities/actions can you add to this list? while others endure intense droughts. Species extinction occurs at rates never before witnessed. Safe water is increasingly limited, hindering economic activity. Land degradation endangers the lives of millions of people. This is the world today. Yet, as the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) concluded in its 1987 report, Our Common Future, “humanity has the ability to make development sustainable.” An important contribution of the report was a concise definition of sustainability as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Thus the Brundtland Commission addressed the links between development and environment, and challenged policymakers to consider the interrelationships among environmental, economic, and social issues when it comes to solving global problems. Emerging global challenges they identified included continued population growth, maintaining functional ecosystems, food security, environmental governance, health, security, globalization, and energy. Population Growth It is fair to say that a core cause of the current environmental crisis is the sheer number of people. If there were fewer people, the pressure on environmental resources and services would be much less. However, the causes of human population growth are not just biological. People have the ability and tools to make decisions about how many children they will have but for a variety of cultural and economic reasons they often have large families. Consequently, the human population continues to grow, with most of the increase in population occurring in poor countries. (See figure 1.3 .) This growth puts pressure on resources and leads to the degrading of the environment and often locks people in a cycle of poverty. Environmental Interrelationships 5 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 5 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer Focus On Campus Sustainability Initiative The Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) was founded in 2006 as a membership organization of colleges and universities in the United States and Canada. There are currently over 800 member colleges and universities. AASHE’s mission is to promote sustainability in all aspects of higher education. Its definition of sustainability includes human and ecological health, social justice, secure livelihoods, and a better world for all generations. A core concept of AASHE is that higher education must be a leader in preparing students and employees to understand the importance of sustainability and to work toward achieving it. Furthermore, campuses should showcase sustainability in their operations and curriculum. To accomplish its goals, AASHE sponsors conferences and workshops to educate members. It also provides networking opportunities and an e-bulletin to facilitate the exchange of information about sustainable practices on campuses. AASHE has developed a rating system that allows educational institutions to assess their progress toward achieving sustainability. The Sustainability Tracking, Assessment, and Rating System (STARS) focuses on three major categories of activity: education and research, operations, and administration and finance. Is your college a member? Go to the AASHE website and check its membership list. FIGURE 1.3 Population Growth Most of the growth in human population is occurring in the less-developed world. The population growth rate for most of the economically developed world is stable or falling. Poverty is often linked to poor health because of malnutrition and lack of access to affordable health care. The economically developed countries generally have stable or falling populations and many encourage immigration from the less-developed parts of the world to provide the labor needed for their economies. CHAPTER 1 Maintaining Functional Ecosystems As people seek to provide food and other resources for their families, they necessarily affect natural ecosystems. Much of the Earth’s surface has been converted to agricultural use for raising crops or grazing cattle. When this conversion occurs natural ecosystems are destroyed or degraded. We are beginning to recognize that biodiversity and functional ecosystems have economic value and their loss can have profound economic consequences. When a species of organism goes extinct, its loss has a ripple effect throughout its ecosystem. As was described in the chapter opening, the local extinction of wolves resulted in changes in the populations of plants and other animals. There is consensus among scientists that the current rate of extinction is similar to that which occurred in the mass extinctions of the geologic past. A related concern is that the loss of ecosystems results in a loss or reduction in the services they provide. These ecosystem services include provisioning services, such as food, minerals, renewable energy, and water; regulating services, such as waste decomposition, pollination, purification of water and air, and pest and disease control; cultural services, such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, and soil formation. (See figure 1.4 .) Environmental changes that alter these services affect human security. Although all people rely on ecosystem services, the world’s poorest people are especially dependent on environmental goods and services for eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 6 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer FIGURE 1.4 Ecosystem Services Pollination is an important ecosystem service. their livelihoods, which makes them particularly sensitive and vulnerable to environmental changes. Food Security The world is divided into those who have abundant food, those who have adequate food, and those who often lack food. The poor of the world are often subsistence farmers who rely on the food they grow to feed their families. (See figure 1.5 .) Environmental disasters such as droughts, floods, or outbreaks of disease in their animals or crops often result in a lack of food and malnutrition. The amount of food produced in the world is currently able to feed all people adequately. When people face a food shortage, food can be shipped from those that have a surplus to those that need food. However, this is not as simple as it sounds. The poor cannot pay for the food or the cost of shipping it to them. Humanitarian organizations or governments that provide food must fund these emergency programs. A related problem is that the people who need food often must migrate to areas where food is being distributed, which leads to the establishment of refugee camps or increased squatter populations in and around cities. Therefore, major efforts are being made to provide farmers with better farming methods, improved seeds, and with crops that provide food but do less damage to the land. Environmental Governance Despite a greater understanding of the ties between environment and development, real progress toward sustainable development has been slow. Many governments continue to create policies concerned with environmental, economic, and social matters as separate issues. As a result, strategies for economic development often ignore the need to maintain the ecosystem on which longterm development depends. A good example of this disconnect is the continued building of housing on coastlines and floodplains that are subject to flooding. The extent of the damaged caused by hurricane Katrina in 2005 and hurricane Sandy in 2012 was at least partly due to the failure of some government agencies to see FIGURE 1.5 Food Security In much of the less-developed world, small- scale farms provide the food that people need. If environmental disasters affect crops, people go hungry. the link between destruction of coastal wetlands and the increased vulnerability of coastal communities to storms. The issue of declining salmon stocks in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and British Columbia, Canada illustrates another aspect of the problem of governance. (See figure 1.6 .) There is typically political and economic friction associated with a resource that crosses political boundaries. From the U.S. perspective alone there are five federal cabinet-level departments, two federal agencies, five federal laws, and numerous tribal treaties that affect decisions about the use of this resource. Furthermore, commercial fishers from several states and provinces are economically affected by any decisions made concerning the harvesting of these fish. They are all politically active and try to influence the laws and rulings of state, provincial, and national governments. It is also safe to say that good science is not always the motivator for the laws and policies. Environment and Health The health of countless people around the world is affected by human-induced changes in the environment. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), almost one-quarter of all diseases are caused by environmental exposure. WHO estimates that 13 million deaths worldwide could be prevented every year by environmental improvement. Environmental Interrelationships eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 7 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer FIGURE 1.6 The Regional Nature of Environmental Problems The regulation of salmon fishing in the Northwest involves several states and the Canadian province of British Columbia. These political entities regulate fishing seasons and the kind of gear that can be used. Alaska British Columbia Washington Oregon In the poorer countries of the world about one third of deaths have environmental causes. Environmental risks including air and water pollution, hazards in the workplace, traffic-related injuries, ultraviolet radiation, noise, and climate and ecosystem change all need to be addressed to generate better global health. The following examples show how environmental conditions and human health are linked. Air pollution is a serious problem in much of the developing world. In many urban areas the general public is exposed to poor air quality that results from unregulated industrial sources and vehicles with poor pollution control devices. In addition, many people are exposed to high levels of air pollution in their workplaces, and people are exposed in their homes because burning of wood for cooking and heating releases wood smoke. Cigarette smoking exposes the user, and those who live and work with smokers are exposed secondhand. Common diseases related to air pollution are pneumonia, emphysema, and bronchitis, which are responsible for about 6 million deaths per year. CHAPTER 1 Water pollution results from industrial and municipal releases of pollutants into waterways. Many people in the developing world do not have access to a safe drinking water source or sanitary facilities. When untreated human wastes contaminate water, disease organisms are easily spread from person to person. Diarrhea that results from contaminated drinking water causes dehydration and malnutrition and leads to nearly 2 million deaths per year. The majority of deaths occur in children. Malaria is caused by a protozoan parasite carried by mosquitos. Programs to protect people from being bitten by infected mosquitos have eliminated the disease in much of the developed world. However, it still results in over half a million deaths per year primarily in children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Once a person is infected with malaria, they continue to have episodes of the disease and when bitten by mosquitos can cause mosquitos to become infected and carry the disease to other persons. Breaking the cycle of disease involves altering the environment so that mosquitos have fewer breeding places and preventing people from being bitten by mosquitos. Accidents in the home and workplace and those that result from traffic cause about 900,000 deaths per year. Over half the accidental deaths result from traffic accidents. In much of the less-developed world, road conditions are poor, vehicles are poorly maintained, and the mix of pedestrians, bicycles, animals pulling carts, and motor vehicles on roads and streets results in many accidents. Cancer and coronary heart disease cause about 4 million deaths per year. They are common throughout the world but are most prevalent in developed countries. The environmental causes of these diseases are varied but include exposure to cigarette smoke, exposure to ultraviolet light, and the kinds and amounts of foods eaten. Obesity is a contributing cause. Emerging diseases result from new organisms or those that become a problem because of environmental changes. Since 1980, more than 35 infectious diseases have emerged or taken on new importance. Often these diseases result from interactions between animals and humans that result in the transfer of animal diseases to humans. The AIDS virus and several flu viruses are examples. In other cases, human changes to the environment lead to changes in organisms that make them more deadly. For example, the wide use of antibiotics has caused the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as tuberculosis and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Figure 1.7 illustrates several links between environment and health. Environment and Security A person’s security incorporates economic, political, cultural, social, and environmental aspects. It means having stable and reliable access to resources and the ability to be secure from natural and human disasters. Environmental resources are a critical part eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 8 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer (a) Obesity (b) Water Pollution (c) Air Pollution (d) Traffic Congestion FIGURE 1.7 Environment and Health Figure 1.7a depicts obesity, which is a major health concern in a growing number of developed countries. F igure 1.7b shows women washing clothes in polluted water in an urban slum in India. People will also use the same water downstream to wash vegetables, increasing the risk of spreading disease. F igure 1.7c shows air pollution in Shanghai, China. Air pollution is a major health issue in China. F igure 1.7d shows traffic congestion in Chengdu, China. This kind of traffic situation often results in accidents that lead to injuries and deaths. of the livelihoods of millions of people, and when these resources and droughts and human disasters such as war cause many people are threatened through environmental change, people’s security to migrate to new areas. The local increase in population caused by is also threatened making conflict and social instability common. new immigrants puts increased demands on the local environment (See figure 1.8 .) For example, disputes over water quantity and to supply resources and provide adequate ecosystem services. quality are ongoing in many parts of the world, and when land Thus, local ecosystems are typically degraded. ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few rich people, revo-Urbanization in particular can cause significant pressure on lution and redistribution of land often result. the environment. Rapid urban growth often overwhelms the abil- Human migration and urbanization have complex relation-ity of cities to provide adequate services to their inhabitants and ships with environmental change. Natural disasters such as floods industrial and human wastes pollute the local environment. On the Environmental Interrelationships eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 9 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer (b) (a) (c) FIGURE 1.8 Environment and Security Figure 1.8a shows a young person obtaining water from a well in Bangladesh even though the surrounding area is inundated by flood water. Figure 1.8b shows the No Name Creek forest fire in Colorado in 2002. Figure 1.8c indicates that the beach is unsafe for swimming. All of these situations place persons at risk and reduce their sense of security. other hand, cities can provide economies of scale, opportunities for sustainable transport, and efficient energy options, which can relieve pressure on the environment. Environment and Globalization Globalization is the worldwide exchange of ideas, goods, and cultural views. In particular it allows business transactions to take place across much of the world. The environment and globalization are strongly linked. The globalization of trade has led to the spread of exotic species. For example, the zebra mussel has spread through North America during the last 25 years, resulting in significant ecological and economic impacts. (See figure 1.9 .) Its introduction corresponds with a dramatic increase in wheat shipments between the United States, Canada, and the former Soviet Union. In a globalized world, important decisions related to environmental protection may have more to do with corporate management and outcomes than with political or scientific factors. CHAPTER 1 Unfortunately, this was perhaps one of the realities of the 2010 Gulf of Mexico oil tragedy. Countries may be reluctant to enforce strict environmental laws, fearing that companies will relocate. However, it is often forgotten that the environment itself can have an impact on globalization. Resources fuel global economic growth and trade. Solutions to environmental crises, such as climate change, require coordinated global action and greater globalization of governance. Examples of international activities to address concerns about the Earth’s natural systems and how humans are affecting them include the following: The Earth Summit The first worldwide meeting of heads of state that was directed to a concern for the environment took place at the Earth Summit, formally known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. One of the key outcomes of the conference was a series of eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 10 9/12/14 10:17 AM Final PDF to printer (a) (b) FIGURE 1.9 Globalization and Invasive Species Zebra mussels were carried to the Detroit area by European ships that dumped their ballast water. Zebra mussels quickly spread throughout the Great Lakes regions and the Mississippi River drainage. Figure 1.9a shows the striped pattern on the shells for which zebra mussels are named. Figure 1.9b shows a current meter encrusted with zebra mussels. W What’s Your Take? The governors of the Great Lakes states have signed an agreement that of the country that are water poor argue that the water in the Great Lakes prohibits the export of water from the Great Lakes. They argue that the is a resource that should be shared by all citizens of the country. Develop water is a valuable resource that is needed by the citizens of their states an argument that supports or refutes the governors’ stated policy. and that export would deprive the states’ citizens of the resource. Regions policy statements on sustainable development that were identified as Agenda 21. More than 178 governments at the 1992 conference adopted three documents related to sustainable development: Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the Statement of Principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests. The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development was created in 1993 to monitor and report on implementation of the agreements. Follow-up conferences were held in 1997, 2002, and 2012 to assess progress. Climate Change In 1997, representatives from 125 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, for the Third Conference of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. This conference, commonly referred to as the Kyoto Conference on Climate Change, resulted in commitments from the participating nations to reduce their overall emissions of six greenhouse gases (linked to global warming) by at least 5 percent below 1990 levels and to do so between the years 2008 and 2012. The Kyoto Protocol, as the agreement was called, was viewed by many as one of the most important steps to date in environmental protection and international diplomacy. It is clear that most countries did not meet their goals, because there has been a steady increase in the amount of the most important greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. Additional climate change conferences have not produced a plan that is binding on all countries. Countries have been encouraged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions but most countries have not made significant progress. Energy and the Environment The world is facing twin threats: inadequate and insecure supplies of energy at affordable prices, and environmental damage due to overconsumption of energy. Global demand for energy keeps growing, placing an ever increasing burden on natural resources and on the environment. (See figure 1.10 .) During the 10-year Environmental Interrelationships 11 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 11 9/12/14 10:18 AM Final PDF to printer (c) (a) (d) (b) period from 2003 to 2012, world energy consumption increased by 25 percent. Most of this increase came from countries with developing economies in Asia and South America. China, India, South Korea, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico are among the countries with large increases in energy use. Global increases in carbon dioxide emissions are primarily due to fossil fuel use. Traditional biomass (firewood and dung) remains an important energy source in developing countries, where 2.1 billion people rely on it for heating and cooking. CHAPTER 1 FIGURE 1.10 Energy Use and the Environment Global demand for energy keeps growing, placing an ever-increasing burden on natural resources and on the environment. Figures 1.10a and 1.10b show consumption of energy to provide transportation and light homes. Figure 1.10c is a drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico that supplies oil as a source of energy. Figure 1.10d shows solar panels on a German home. Germany has pledged to significantly reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and has subsidized the installation of solar panels. The need to curb growth in energy demand, increase fuel supply diversity, and mitigate climate destabilizing emissions is more urgent than ever. However, expansion of alternative energy sources, such as biofuels, must also be carefully planned. Brazil expects to double the production of ethanol, a “modern” biofuel, in the next two decades. In order to produce enough crops to reach production targets, the cultivated area is increasing rapidly, potentially jeopardizing entire ecosystems. eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 12 9/12/14 10:18 AM Final PDF to printer Science, Politics, & Policy S National Security Policy and Climate Change Conflict brought on by droughts, famine, and unwelcome migration is as old as history itself. However, a growing number of military analysts think that climate change will exacerbate these problems worldwide and are encouraging countries to prepare to maintain order even as shrinking resources make their citizens desperate. Analysis by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that climate change will manifest itself in a number of ways. Increases in sea level, melting of glaciers, changes in weather patterns, and altered agricultural productivity will put people at odds with one another as they face a potential scarcity of foods and potable water. An example of this potential conflict is a high-tech fence that India installed in 2008 along its border with Bangladesh to help deter an influx of illegal immigrants displaced by rising sea levels flooding their low- lying homeland. It is argued that as warming temperatures deplete water supplies and alter land use, already vulnerable communities in Asia and Africa could descend into conflicts and even wars as more people clamor for increasingly scarce resources. In 2007, a study was undertaken in the United States by the CNA Corporation in Washington, D.C. The study, entitled National Security and the Threat of Climate Change, brought together a dozen retired admirals and generals to study how climate change could affect the United States’ security over the next 30 to 40 years. The recommendations of the report are: . The national security consequences of climate change should be fully integrated into national security and national defense strategies. . The United States should commit to a stronger national and international role to help stabilize climate change at levels that will avoid significant disruption to global security and stability. . The United States should commit to global partnerships that help less- developed nations build the capacity and resiliency to better manage climate impacts. . The Department of Defense should enhance its operational capability by accelerating the adoption of improved business processes and innovative technologies that result in improved U.S. combat power through energy efficiency. . The Department of Defense should conduct an assessment of the impact on U.S. military installations worldwide of rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and other projected climate changes over the next 30 years. It appears that military planners take the threat of climate change seriously. In the national and international security environment, it is becoming increasingly clear that climate change threatens to add new hostile and stressing factors. On the simplest level, it has the potential to create sustained natural and humanitarian disasters far beyond those we see today. The consequences will likely foster political instability where societal demands exceed the capacity of governments and policymakers to cope. However, it is up to political leaders in Congress and to the president to evaluate these recommendations and propose legislation to act on these recommendations. Soldiers of the Border Security Force of India (BSFI) on strict vigil near the International Barbed-Wire Border Fence on India-Bangladesh International Border at Kedar village of Dhubri district of Northeastern Indian State, Assam. Environmental Interrelationships 13 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 13 9/12/14 10:19 AM Final PDF to printer Issues & Analysiss Government Regulation and Personal Property There are many ways in which government intrudes into your personal lives. Many kinds of environmental regulations require people to modify their behavior. However, one of the most controversial situations occurs when government infringes on personal property rights. The Endangered Species Act requires that people do no harm to threatened and endangered species. They may not be hunted or harvested and often special areas are established to assure their protection. Many people have found after they have purchased a piece of land that it has endangered species as inhabitants. They are then faced with a situation in which they cannot use the land as they intended, and the land loses much of its value to them. Some argue that they should be allowed to use the land for their original purpose because they did not know it was habitat for an endangered species. Others argue that they have been deprived of a valuable good by the federal government and that the government should compensate them for their loss. On the other hand, the people charged with enforcing the regulations say that they are simply following the laws of the land and that the landowner must obey. The threatened California gnatcatcher is a small grey bird that inhabits coastal sagebrush habitats. Developers and those that put forth efforts to preserve the California gnatcatcher reached a compromise. Some land that was originally planned for development has been set aside as habitat for the gnatcatcher. . Do you think landowners should be compensated for their loss by the federal government? . Should purchasers of land do better research about the land they want to buy? Preserved California Gnatcatcher Habitat California Gnatcatcher CHAPTER 1 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 14 9/12/14 10:19 AM Final PDF to printer Summary Environmental science involves the interrelationships among science, economics, ethics, and politics in arriving at solutions to environmental problems. Artificial political boundaries create difficulties in managing environmental problems because most environmental units, or ecosystems, do not coincide with political boundaries. The concept of sustainability requires that we consider future generations when we make decisions about how to use resources. Furthermore, as the population of the world has grown and the exchange of people and goods between countries has increased, many environmental problems have become global in nature. This presents problems with how governments cooperate to assure that their citizens can be healthy, secure, and adequately fed, without compromising the environment that supports them. Energy use continues to be a major issue related to sustainability. 1. Look for locally grown produce in the supermarket—less energy is used to transport locally grown products. 2. Join a local environmental organization. 3. Volunteer for your local Earth Day event in April. Acting Green 4. Visit a natural area, nature center, or park typical of your region and learn to identify five plants. 5. Go to the website of the League of Conservation Voters, click on the Scorecard tab, and find out the “environmental score” of your sena- tors and representative. Review Questions 1. Give examples of political, economic, and biological aspects of the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park. 2. Describe what is meant by an ecosystem approach to environmental problem solving. 3. Define sustainability. 4. Give examples of several kinds of services provided by natural ecosystems. 5. Give examples that show how social and political factors influence how environmental decisions are made. 6. Explain why the following statement is true. There is enough food in the world to feed everyone but some people do not have enough food. 7. Describe how solving environmental problems is made more difficult by problems with governance. 8. Give examples of environmental conditions that lead to poor health and death for exposed people. 9. Why are wars fought over oil, water, or land? 10. Give examples of the environmental consequences of globalization. 11. What is the major environmental problem related to the use of fossil fuels as an energy source? 12. In what parts of the world is energy use increasing? Environmental Interrelationships 15 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 15 9/12/14 10:19 AM Final PDF to printer Critical Thinking Questions 1. Imagine you are a U.S. congressional representative from a western state and a new wilderness area is being proposed for your district. Who might contact you to influence your decision? What course of action would you take? Why? 2. How do you weigh in on the issue of jobs or the environment? What limits do you set on economic growth? Environmental protection? 3. Imagine you are an environmentalist in your area who is interested in local environmental issues. What kinds of issues might these be? 4. In a discussion with a representative of China, you state that China contributes the largest amounts of greenhouse gases of any country in the world. The representative responds by stating that the developed world including the United States has benefited from 200 years of fossil fuel use and industrialization that has led to a high standard of living. Why shouldn’t the citizens of his country experience the same standard of living? How would you respond? Is the situation today different from that 100 years ago? 5. You are the superintendent of Yellowstone National Park and want to move to an ecosystem approach to managing the park. How might an ecosystem approach change the current park? How would you present your ideas to surrounding landowners? 6. Look at the issue of climate change from several different disciplinary perspectives—economics, climatology, sociology, political science, agronomy. What might be some questions that each discipline could contribute to our understanding of global warming? CHAPTER 1 eng3255x_ch01_001-016.indd 16 9/12/14 10:19 AM Final PDF to printer chapter Environmental Ethics 环境伦理2 CHAPTER OUTLINE Of Sea Lions and Salmon—An Environmental and Ethical Dilemma 2.1 The Call for a New Ethic .. 2.2 Environmental Ethics ........ .... 2.3 Environmental Attitudes 2.4 Environmental Justice 2.5 Societal Environmental Ethics 2.6 Corporate Environmental Ethics 2.7 ..........Individual Environmental Ethics 2.8 The Ethics of Consumption 2.9 Personal Choices 2.10 Global Environmental Ethics FOCUS ON: Early Philosophers of Nature 24 SCIENCE, POLITICS, & POLICY: Should Environmental Scientists Be Advocates for Environmental Policy? 31 GOING GREEN: Do We Consume Too Much? 32 ISSUES & ANALYSIS: Environmental Disasters and Poverty 35 本章概要 海狮与三文鱼....环境与伦理的权衡 ..................召唤新的伦理.. ................环境伦理 ...... ............环境态度.... ..................环境公平 ................社会环境伦理 ..............企业环境伦理 ..................个人环境伦理 ................消费伦理 ............个人选择.................. ....................全球环境伦理 关注：早期的自然主义哲学家 ...... 科学、政治与政策：环境科学家应该是环境政策的拥护者吗？ .... 走向绿色：我们是否消费太多？...... 问题与分析：环境灾害与贫困........ Human use alters the natural world. Often we must ask what kind of use is ethical? Is clearing a tropical forest for agriculture ethically supportable? 人类的利用会改变自然世界。我们必须经常考问什么样的利用是合乎伦理的？为 农业生产而清除热带森林能得到伦理支持吗？ OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: . Understand the role of ethics in society. . Recognize the importance of a personal ethical commitment. . List three conflicting attitudes toward nature. . Explain the connection between material wealth and resource exploitation. . Describe the factors associated with environmental justice. 学习目标 阅读完本章后，你应该能够： ....理解伦理学在社会中的作用 ....认识个人伦理的重要性 ....列出三种与自然冲突的态度 ....解释物质财富和资源开发之间的联系 ....描述与环境公平相关的因素 ....解释公司行为怎样决定环境现状 eng3255x_ch02_017-038.indd 17 . Explain how corporate behavior connects to the state of the environment. . Describe how environmental leaders in industry are promoting more sustainable practices. . Describe the triple bottom line. . Explain the concept “greenwashing.” . Describe the influence that corporations wield because of their size. . Explain the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation. . Explain some of the relationships between affluence, poverty, and environmental degradation. . Explain the importance of individual ethical commitments toward environment. . Explain why global action on the environment is necessary. ....描述工业界的环保领导者如何促进可持续的实践活动 ....描述三重底线 ....解释..绿漂..（........................）这一概念 ....描述企业的规模对其行使权力的影响 ....解释经济增长和环境退化之间的关系 ....解释富裕、贫穷与环境恶化的某些关系 ....解释对环境的个人伦理承诺的重要性 ....解释对环境采取全球行动的必要性 17 9/12/14 11:34 AM Final PDF to printer Of Sea Lions and Salmon—An Environmental and Ethical Dilemma Animal rights groups continue to fight in court plans to trap and kill California sea lions that feed on protected fish species near the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia river. Oregon, Washington, and Idaho first asked the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) in 2006 for permission to “take” California sea lions that eat salmon, steelhead, and sturgeon just below the dam, which acts as a bottleneck to fish migrating upstream in the Columbia River. The request was part of an effort to protect threatened or endangered populations of these fish. But California sea lions are also protected. The Marine Mammals Protection Act bans the taking of all marine mammals, unless individual animals “are having significant impact on the decline or recovery” of threatened or endangered species. Another species of sea lion, the Steller sea lion, also feeds at the dam but is off limits because it is protected by the Marine Mammals Protection Act and the Endangered Species Act. In 2008 the states were permitted to kill up to 85 California sea lions per year, but the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court vacated that authorization in 2010. The federal appeals court said NMFS failed to explain why sea lions posed a greater threat to endangered fish than commercial fisheries and hydroelectric power plants. In 2012 NMFS granted another round of authorizations, this time to kill or permanently capture up to 92 California sea lions per year. The authorizations are good until June 2016, and allow the states to trap and 2.1 The Call for a New Ethic The most beautiful object I have ever seen in a photograph in all my life is the planet Earth seen from the distance of the moon, hanging in space, obviously alive. Although it seems at first glance to be made up of innumerable separate species of living things, on closer examination every one of its things, working parts, including us, is interdependently connected to all the other working parts. It is, to put it one way, the only truly closed ecosystem any of us know about. —Lewis Thomas When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe. —John Muir One of the marvels of recent technology is that we can see the Earth from the perspective of space, a blue sphere unique among all the planets in our solar system. (See figure 2.1 .) Looking at ourselves from space, it becomes obvious that a lot of what we do on our home planet connects us to something or somebody else. This means, as Harvard University ecologist William Clark points out, that only as a global species, “pooling our knowledge, coordinating our actions, and sharing what the planet has to offer—do we have any prospect for managing the planet’s transformation along pathways of sustainable development.” euthanize individual animals or to shoot them under certain conditions. The Humane Society filed a new lawsuit under the Endangered Species Act and the Marine Mammals Protection Act. They claim NMFS simply recycled its analysis to support the kill authorizations without addressing the problems raised by the Ninth Circuit Court. The battle of sea lions v. salmon continues. California Sea lion taking a salmon near the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River. FIGURE 2.1 The Earth as Seen from Space Political, geographic, and national differences among humans do not seem so important from this per- spective. In reality, we all share the same planet. CHAPTER 2 eng3255x_ch02_017-038.indd 18 9/12/14 11:34 AM Final PDF to printer Some people see little value in an undeveloped river and feel it is unreasonable to leave it flowing in a natural state. It could be argued that rivers throughout the world ought to be controlled to provide power, irrigation, and navigation for the benefit of humans. It could also be argued that to not use these resources would be wasteful. In the U.S. Pacific Northwest, there is a conflict over the value of old-growth forests. Economic interests want to use the forests for timber production and feel that to not do so would cause economic hardship. They argue that trees are simply a resource to be used in any way deemed necessary for human economic benefit. An opposing view is that all the living things that make up the forest have a kind of value beyond their economic utility. Removing the trees would destroy something ethically significant that took hundreds of years to develop and may be almost impossible to replace. Interactions between people and their environment are as old as human civilization. The problem of managing those interactions, however, has been transformed today by unprecedented increases in the rate, scale, and complexity of the interactions. At one time, pollution was viewed as a local, temporary event. Today pollution may involve several countries and may affect multiple generations. The debates over chemical and radioactive waste disposal are examples of the increasingly international nature of pollution. Many European countries are concerned about the transportation of radioactive and toxic wastes across their borders. What were once straightforward confrontations between ecological preservation and economic growth have today become complex balancing acts containing multiple economic, political, and ethical dimensions. The character of the environmental changes that today’s technology makes possible and the increased public awareness of the importance of the natural environment mean that we have entered a new age of environmental challenges. Across the world, people are beginning to understand that part of what is needed to meet these challenges is the development of a new and more robust environmental ethic. 2.2 Environmental Ethics Ethics is one branch of philosophy. Ethics seeks to define what is right and what is wrong. For example, most cultures are ethically committed to the idea that it is wrong to needlessly take life. Many cultures ground this belief on the existence of a right to life. It is considered unethical to deprive humans of this right to their life. Ethics can help us to understand what actions are wrong and why they are wrong. Many of the issues discussed throughout this book (energy, population, environmental risk, biodiversity, land-use planning, air quality, etc.) have ethical dimensions. Ethics are a broad way of thinking about what constitutes a good life and how to live one. They address questions of right and wrong, making good decisions, and the character or attributes necessary to live a good life. Applied ethics address these issues with a special emphasis on how they can be lived out in a practical manner. Environmental ethics apply ethical thinking to the natural world and the relationship between humans and the earth. Environmental ethics are a key feature of environmental studies, but they have application in many other fields as human society deals in a more meaningful way with pollution, resource degradation, the threat of extinction, and global climate disruption. In the most general sense, environmental ethics invites us to consider three key propositions: 1. The Earth and its creatures have moral status, in other words, are worthy of our ethical concern. 2. The Earth and its creatures have intrinsic value, meaning that they have moral value merely because they exist, not only because they meet human needs. 3. Based on the concept of an ecosystem, human beings should consider “wholes” that include other forms of life and the environment. Environmental ethics has required us to consider far more carefully the actual extent of the range of stakeholders in any ethical decision. These may include the immediate people involved, but the stakeholders may also include the people of future generations who may be affected by environmental decisions made today. The stakeholders may also include people who live far away from where decisions are made but may be impacted by those environmental decisions. And stakeholders may include the natural world itself. This concept makes us consider the moral status or the intrinsic value of each stakeholder—whether the stakeholder is a human being or the animals, plants, and ecosystems of the natural world itself. The concept of “the moral status of nature” is an important feature that distinguishes environmental ethics from social ethics. When discussing stakeholders the importance of including stakeholders of the future is critical. The future is a category especially pertinent to environmental ethics. In many ethical decisions, the effects of our actions are immediate and apparent. In many environmental ethics decisions, however, the effects of our actions may be cumulative, long-lasting and, at least in the near term, hidden. For instance, the runoff from a new residential subdivision will eventually flow into a nearby river. Because of the impermeable streets and sidewalks, rainwater will be carried to the river rapidly and carry with it fertilizer and herbicides from lawns, oil and other fluids from roadways, and other discards of people living there. At first, the damaging effects may be slight. But, over time, these effects may accumulate until the character of the river is fundamentally and destructively altered. Environmental ethics also makes us think differently in terms of place. That is, environmental ethics forces us to consider decisions in light of such living realities as the biosphere and ecosystems. Thus, when we trace the possible effects of a particular action, we must pay close attention to how the initial effects near at hand may well create a chain reaction of critical effects. Conflicting Ethical Positions Even when people have strong personal ethical commitments, they might find that some of their commitments conflict. For example, a mayor might have an ethical commitment to preserving the land Environmental Ethics 19 eng3255x_ch02_017-038.indd 19 9/12/14 11:35 AM Final PDF to printer around a city but at the same time have an ethical commitment to bringing in the jobs associated with the construction of a new factory on the outskirts of town. There are often difficult balances to be struck between multiple ethical values. As you can see, ethics can be very complicated. Ethical issues dealing with the environment are especially complex because sometimes it appears that what is good for people conflicts with what is good for the environment. Saving the forest might mean the loss of some logging jobs. While recognizing that there are some real conflicts involved, it is also important to see that it is not necessarily the case that when the environment wins people lose. In a surprising number of cases it turns out that what is good for the environment is also good for people. For example, even when forest protection reduces logging jobs, a healthier forest might lead to new jobs in recreation, fisheries, and tourism. Searching for genuine “win-win” situations has become a priority in environmental decision making. The Greening of Religion For many years, environmental issues were considered to be the concern of scientists, lawyers, and policymakers. Now the ethical dimensions of the environmental crisis are becoming more evident. What is our moral responsibility toward future generations? How can we ensure equitable development that does not destroy the environment? Can religious and cultural perspectives be considered in creating viable solutions to environmental challenges? Until recently, religious communities have been so absorbed in internal sectarian affairs that they were unaware of the magnitude of the environmental concerns facing the world. Certainly, the natural world figures prominently in the world’s major religions: God’s creation of material reality in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam; the manifestation of the divine in the karmic processes underlying the recycling of matter in Hinduism and Jainism; the interdependence of life in Buddhism; and the Tao (the Way) that courses through nature in Confucianism and Taoism. Today, many religious leaders recognize that religions, as enduring shapers of culture and values, can make major contributions to the rethinking of our current environmental impasse. Religions have developed ethics for homicide, suicide, and genocide; now they are challenged to respond to biocide and ecocide. Moreover, the environment presents itself as one of the most compelling concerns for robust interreligious dialogue. The common ground is the Earth itself, along with a shared sense among the world’s religions of the interdependence of all life. Much of the credit for increases in such “faith-based” environmentalism can go the National Religious Partnership for the Environment (NRPE), which was founded in 1993 to “weave the mission of care for God’s creation across all areas of organized religion.” NRPE has forged relationships with a diverse group of religious organizations, including the U.S. Catholic Conference, the National Council of Churches of Christ, the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life, and the Evangelical Environmental Network. These organizations work with NRPE to develop environmental programs that mesh with their own varied spiritual teachings. CHAPTER 2 For instance, some 135,000 congregations—counting Catholic parishes, synagogues, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox churches, and evangelical congregations—have been provided with resource kits on environmental issues, including sermons for clergy, lesson plans for Sunday school teachers, and even conservation tips for church and synagogue building managers. Even Evangelical Christians, known for their conservative stand on most issues, are becoming green. The Colorado-based National Association of Evangelicals is urging its 30 million members to pursue a “biblically balanced agenda” to protect the environment alongside fighting poverty. Indeed it was Evangelical minister Reverend Jim Ball who in 2004 started the “What Would Jesus Drive?” campaign, promoting hybrid cars. Three Philosophical Approaches to Environmental Ethics Given the complexity of the issues, environmental philosophers have developed a number of theoretical approaches to help us see more clearly our ethical responsibilities concerning the environment. In these environmentally conscious times, most people agree that we need to be environmentally responsible. Toxic waste contaminates groundwater, oil spills destroy shorelines, and fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide, thus adding to global warming. The goal of environmental ethics, then, is not simply to convince us that we should be concerned about the environment—many already are. Instead, environmental ethics focuses on the moral foundation of environmental responsibility and how far this responsibility extends. There are three primary theories of moral responsibility regarding the environment. Although each can support environmental responsibility, their approaches are different. (See figure 2.2 .) Anthropocentrism The first of these theories is anthropocentrism or human- centered ethics. Anthropocentrism is the view that all environmental responsibility is derived from human interests alone. The assumption here is that only human beings are morally significant and have direct moral standing. Since the environment is crucial to human well-being and human survival, we have an indirect duty toward the environment, that is, a duty derived from human interests. We must ensure that the Earth remains environmentally hospitable for supporting human life and even that it remains a pleasant place for humans to live. Nevertheless, according to this view, the value of the environment lies in its instrumental worth for humans. Nature is fundamentally an instrument for human manipulation. Some anthropocentrists have argued that our environmental duties are derived both from the immediate benefit that people receive from the environment and from the benefit that future generations of people will receive. But critics have maintained that since future generations of people do not yet exist, then, strictly speaking, they cannot have rights any more than a dead person can have rights. Nevertheless, both parties to this dispute acknowledge that environmental concern derives solely from human interests. eng3255x_ch02_017-038.indd 20 9/12/14 11:35 AM